On March 26, 2024, the Embassy of Bangladesh in the Netherlands organized a reception at the Marriott Hotel in The Hague to celebrate the 53rd anniversary of Independence. The event was attended by a significant number of guests who came together to felicitate H.E. Ambassador M. Riaz Hamidullah on this special occasion.
Many politicians, academics, entrepreneurs, NGO representatives, business persons, government officials, ambassadors, expatriates, and Bangladesh professionals  attended the celebration.
The Ambassador of Bangladesh, H.E. Mr. Riaz Hamidullah, and his spouse Sazia Ahmed, welcome the many guests.
The guest of honour was Prof. Dr. Jan Peter Balkenende, a former Dutch Prime Minister and Minister of State.
In his welcome speech,H.E. Ambassador M. Riaz Hamidullahbriefly underlined the ways the ties shaped in the past five decades, our shared values and how Bangladesh intends to engage with the Netherlands in the time ahead.
The Ambassador recalled the contribution of the Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, âthe architect of our independence. Defying many odds, Bangladesh made notable strides. Much of this is credited to political and social stability aside from sustained and equitable economic growth thanks to the visionary leadership of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina.
In positioning Bangladesh with her value-driven policies, we firmly hold on to democracy, pluralism and secularism. The Ambassador also mentioned that Bangladesh â Netherlands ties as also a vision of global well-being premised on shared prosperity – be it sustainable development, tackling climate change or advancing circularity.â
Prof. Dr. Jan Peter Balkenende.
The highlight of the evening was the remarks made by Prof. Dr. Jan Peter Balkenende. He began his speech by recalling the visionary leadership of the Father of the Nation, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
Balkenende also drew a comparison between Bangabandhu and the Dutch Father of the Nations in terms of their leadership and tragic demise. He then read out a quote from Hon’ble Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina on the Unfinished Memoir of Bangabandhu, from a daughter’s perspective. Balkenende praised the leadership of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and how she is working hard to materialize her father’s dream, and also highlighted Bangladesh’s economic progress over the years and its potential for trade and investment as a growing economy. The presence and remarks of Dr Balkenende moved the audience, resulting in spontaneous applause.
The festivities concluded with an (iftar) dinner that included a variety of delicious Bangladeshi dishes like Kacchi biriyani, polao, chicken korma, dal, vegetables, fish, chop, and homemade sweets.
âWe were also considerate of the holy month of Ramadan and ensured that iftar items were available for guests who were fasting. The aim was to create a delightful culinary experience while keeping in mind the religious observances of our guests.â
At the end of the event, every guest received a handcrafted jute placemat created by the Bangladeshi entrepreneur Beni Boonon.
Based on all of this, we can confidently state that our National Day 2024 celebration left a lasting impression on the memories of all the attendees.
This work is based on bibliographic research and on exclusive interviews with Lawrence Susskind*, Director of the Massuchusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Science Impact Collaborative (People), and with Pedro Figueroa**, President of DiploCientifica (QuiĂŠnes Somos).
While the concept of Science Diplomacy (SD) emerged in the early 21st century (Arnaldi, Tessarolo, p.8), it had already been previously carried out (Domingues, Neto 2017, p. 612). Even though there is no single definition garnering the unanimous acceptance of experts (Eigner July 2023, p.1), SD can be understood according to three aspects (New Frontiers inScience Diplomacy: Navigating the Changing Balance of Power January 2010, p. VI):
– Science in diplomacy: scientific advice in relation to foreign policy – Diplomacy for science: diplomatic activities aimed at facilitating international scientific collaboration – Science for diplomacy: the use of science cooperation to forge international relations between countries.
There are often SD activities where these three aspects are simultaneously present (Eigner July 2023, p. 3).
SD’s notable expansion, both in the practical sphere and in the field of academic research, is due to its growing importance as part of foreign policy (Krasnyak May 16, 2019). Lawrence Susskind points out that there are several diplomatic academies scattered worldwide (Europe, Latin America and the Middle East, for instance) where SD is present in many of their training programs. In the view of Pedro Figueroa, SD is not addressed in the same way in every country in the world, since the various specificities need to be considered.
The global challenges that are part of the international agenda, such as biodiversity, human health and climate stability, have contributed, to a great extent, toward SD’s current prominence (Ruffini 2020). These and other challenges are presented as being insurmountable by a single country, hence the call for international scientific collaboration (Ruffini 2020). Somehow, SD is globalized (Robinson, et alii August 2023) and related to global governance (Legrand, Stone March 7, 2018), but, in reality, SD can also serve national interests (Ruffin, Ruland July 14, 2022).
Lawrence Susskind notes that collaborative actions intended to promote SD in the international sphere are growing rapidly. To this end, Susskind stresses that a few organizations, such as the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) and international development banks, are trying to get countries to engage in greater cooperation, in order to jointly be able to develop their SD capabilities. According to this MIT Professor, multilateral or global organizations need SD staff who often come from national departments and agencies. Susskind feels it would be a serious mistake for said staff to be set up solely by global North experts.
SD practitioners, at times called science diplomats, are all those who, whether officially or unofficially performing diplomatic duties, act in spheres where science and diplomacy intersect (Ruffini 2020). Formally, SD, at embassies, can be conducted, for example, by attachĂŠs and counselors (What Kind of Science Diplomats Are There?). To further exemplify, and in institutional terms, SD can also include representatives from research organizations who have been sent abroad (What Kind of Science Diplomats Are There?). The way Pedro Figueroa sees it, professionals in the sphere of foreign affairs, striving to leave their comfort zone, should be interested in science and technology. However, according to this interviewee, the reverse is also valid; that is, science-related professionals should also show interest in foreign affairs.
There are several examples of non-institutional SD practitioners: inter alia, scientists, directors and managers of research centers (What Kind of Science Diplomats Are There?). The importance of scientists taking part in SD should be underscored (The Science in Science Diplomacy: Perspectives from Peter McGrath from TWAS September 17, 2020). Lawrence Susskind maintains that said scientists need to be suited to participate in international or global negotiations which basically comprise a political nature. This is why, according to Susskind, currently presidents or prime-ministers have senior advisers, as part of an interdisciplinary staff, especially prepared to take part in resolving conflicts and in science-intensive policy negotiations.
Susskind states that, as part of advanced academic training in science and engineering, there is little to no instruction in SD. This scholar adds that, actually, many universities refrain from including, in their traditional science and engineering programs, negotiation / conflict management, policy analysis and diplomatic studies. Lawrence Susskind reveals that he is seeking to obtain philanthropic grants to fund the creation, on the Internet, of SD training programs to be made available free of charge worldwide, in the form of a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC). This way, as Susskind intends, students will no longer depend on their universities for the additional training they need.
Soft power
The signing, with media coverage, of an international cooperation agreement, in the areas of science and technology, constitutes an opportunity to convey a message to the other country’s people (Dolan December 2012). SD can be envisaged as a soft power and public diplomacy instrument (Freeman March 2019, p. 4), at times with long-term effects (Koch-Krumrei January 2022, p. 17), such that the countries become internationally attractive and influential. SD needs to be regarded as an important tool of any country, regardless of their size or wealth (Gluckman, et alii December 2017).
Science can serve for small countries to boost their relevance within the international context (Gluckman, et alii December 2017). Pedro Figueroa notes that science and technology produced in a country contribute toward heightening international reputation. The President of DiploCientifica believes that countries that are able to be identified as lands of science will, over time, grow their soft power, in the international setting, given that most people enjoy science and technology.
Collaboration / competition
An in-depth analysis of SD should start off by concerning various stakeholders and their interests (Fagersten 2022, p. 7). Conflicts of interest can occur between scientists and diplomats (Young, et alii September 2020, p. 6). Scientists fear being manipulated by diplomats and by politicians who uphold national and political interests different from theirs (Young, et alii September 2020, p. 6).
SD is a means to attain a variety of objectives (Fagersten 2022, p. 7). On the one hand, SD is related to countries’ international cooperation in tackling global problems (Young, et alii September 2020, p. 5). On the other hand, SD also comprises a dimension of international competition in the scientific field (Young, et alii September 2020, p. 5). According to Pedro Figueroa, advances in Science and Technology are the fruit of a delicate balance between competition and cooperation. Figueroa underscores that science diplomats need to strive to increase, internationally, freedom of research among collaborators. Still, this interviewee adds that researchers should not be naĂŻve and, as such, must remain attentive to the advantages that international partners wish to obtain.
According to Eigner (July 2023, p. 4), SD activities aim to achieve a competitive edge in relation to other States, concerning science and technology as well as the economic results of all this. However, said activities can also foster exchange, both individually and institutionally, thereby contributing toward international harmony (Eigner July 2023, p. 4). Combining the sphere of science and technology with the field of international affairs entails being able to find common interests (Young, et alii September 2020, p. 6). According to various experts, this can be pivotal for preventing conflicts between civilizations and for the progress of Humankind (Young, et alii September 2020, p. 6|
As seen, the concept of SD can be viewed under several perspectives. In the days of the Cold War, there was a separation between the agendas of cultural and military attachĂŠs which the term Science Diplomacy put an end to (OlsĂĄkovĂĄ, Robinson March 20, 2022). SD includes soft power and hard power in international relations (OlsĂĄkovĂĄ, Robinson March 20, 2022). With this comprehensiveness, SD generates tensions in times of crisis and, as a concept, it works very well within a context of peace (OlsĂĄkovĂĄ, Robinson March 20, 2022). From the standpoint of OlsĂĄkovĂĄ and Robinson (March 20, 2022), SD’s primary mission is to uphold national interests. These experts realize that presenting science as being synonymous with peace is a myth of SD (OlsĂĄkovĂĄ, Robinson March 20, 2022).
To Pedro Figueroa, one of the pivotal aspects of SD consists of lending support to decision-making, as part of foreign policy, by providing scientific evidence. Figueroa feels this science- and technology-based advice can contribute toward coming up with more peaceful solutions to disputes between countries. This expert maintains that many of the current international conflicts could be better addressed and prevented if diplomats brought more science to the negotiating table.
In relation to the current international scenario, Jan Marco Muller believes that, specifically, the military conflict between Russia and Ukraine displayed SD’s soft power limits, with weapons taking center stage and with States against this war suspending formal cooperation with Russian universities and research centers (Whiffen June 2022). Nonetheless, Muller argues that it still remains important to maintain interpersonal contacts with Russian scientists without endangering anyone (Whiffen June 2022). These contacts, according to Muller, will bear their fruits, with contribution from SD, when said conflict ends (Whiffen June 2022). Various experts, such as Aukes and Kuhlmann (February 2022, p. 20), highlight SD’s ability to keep communication channels open between geopolitical adversaries. However, it is not easy to develop scientific cooperation without conveying significant knowledge to an adversary power (Aukes, Kuhlmann February 2022, p. 20). This can raise a dilemma and, since there is no general formula, the decision whether or not to begin SD activities should go by way of pondering diverse specific factors of each situation in particular (Aukes, Kuhlmann February 2022, p. 20).
The depth of changes in SD can outweigh the current Russian-Ukrainian military conflict, namely science’s tendency to be increasingly regarded as a national asset and less deemed something that is shared globally (Kurbalija April 15, 2022). This can be exemplified with the security permissions that various universities and research centers are rolling out, chiefly in domains with military importance, such as, inter alia, biotechnology, artificial intelligence and physics (Kurbalija April 15, 2022). Although said tendency is a reality, the wish for SD to remain linked to peace must not wane. (Kurbalija April 15, 2022). Lawrence Susskind states that, in the field of SD, there are many players whose main aim is to arrive at a peaceful resolution to national differences or, in other words, to prevent war. Susskind realizes that, for instance, the solution to the dispute over Arctic fishing resources by countries in the region, according to their national interests, will go by way of science collaborative efforts pointing to sustainable growth and collective management of the common pool resource.
Portuguese Science Diplomacy
At government level, interministerial cooperation is vital to SD’s success. This is seen in countries such as France, where the Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs cooperates with the Ministry of Higher Education and Research (Scientific Diplomacy). In another Member State of the European Union, Portugal, Pinto (May-October 2022, p. 99) conducted work for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and for the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, under the topic of SD. This somehow also serves to exemplify the need to coordinate a variety of sectors of society, including in terms of the various Government ministries, so that SD yields positive fruits.
Pinto (May-October 2022, p. 99 / 104) considers that Portuguese SD is defined in Council of Ministers Resolution No. 78/2016, November 30. This document holds that SD consists of using resources and initiatives from the field of science and technology, coherently and consistently, as part of Portugal’s European and foreign policy, in order to pursue this policy’s aims and, specifically, promote the nation’s image and interests (PresidĂŞncia do Conselho de Ministros â Resolução do Conselho de Ministros NÂş 78/2016, p. 4253). Said Resolution adds that Portuguese SD should also foster opportunities for not only knowledge, communication and mutual collaboration, between Portugal and other countries, but also contacts between their peoples as well as public diplomacy (PresidĂŞncia do Conselho de Ministros â Resolução do Conselho de Ministros NÂş 78/2016, p. 4253).
The legal document under analysis determines that the internationalization of science, technology and higher education in Portugal should be led by rulers responsible for the areas of foreign affairs and science, technology and higher education (PresidĂŞncia do Conselho de Ministros â Resolução do Conselho de Ministros NÂş 78/2016, p. 4253). Portuguese embassies and consulates are assigned initiatives for promoting the nation’s resources and opportunities, in the sphere of science and higher education, while highlighting the use of their sites (PresidĂŞncia do Conselho de Ministros â Resolução do Conselho de Ministros NÂş 78/2016, p. 4253). The Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, through the Science and Technology Foundation and in conjunction with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, can, at Portuguese embassies, when such is appropriate, set up postdoctoral researchers serving as scientific advisers (PresidĂŞncia do Conselho de Ministros â Resolução do Conselho de Ministros NÂş 78/2016, p. 4253).
On the basis of the aforementioned Resolution, Pinto and Ferreira-Pereira (May 2023, p.10) point to the Atlantic Ocean and the Portuguese language and culture as priorities of Portugal’s SD. Particularly targeted in this context are the Portuguese-Speaking African Countries (PSAC) and East Timor (Pinto, Ferreira-Pereira May 2023, p.10). Portugal’s SD makes use of that which the European Union puts at its disposal to further its relations with the PSAC (Pinto, Ferreira-Pereira May 2023, p.16). With Portugal as a European Union Member-State, its ability to relate to the various Portuguese-speaking countries is positive for all parties involved (Pinto, Ferreira-Pereira May 2023, p.16).
For the Portuguese SD, the national scientific diaspora is relevant (Lacerda, et alii August 2, 2023). This occurs, for instance, with the development of a non-formal and non-hierarchical collaboration, in the time of Brexit, between Portuguese diplomats and the nation’s scientific diaspora in the United Kingdom (Lacerda, et alii August 2, 2023). The Science and Technology Foundation is committed to forging relations with Portuguese scientists working abroad and to attracting them to jobs in their country of origin (PresidĂŞncia do Conselho deMinistros â Resolução do Conselho de Ministros NÂş 78/2016, p. 4253). The State Secretary’s Office for the Portuguese Communities is tasked with stimulating and supporting academic / scientific associations overseas (PresidĂŞncia do Conselho de Ministros â Resolução do Conselho de Ministros NÂş 78/2016, p. 4253). As part of this, there are associations in several countries, such as the following: AGRAFr (France); AGRAPS (Switzerland); APEI Benelux (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg); ASPPA (Germany); Nordic Spot (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden); PAPS (United States of America and Canada); PARSUK (United Kingdom) (Pinto May-October 2022, p. 105). By maintaining some connection to Portugal, these associations can be important for this country’s progress (Pinto May-October 2022, p. 114).
Conclusion
SD is increasingly important in the domain of foreign policy. The idea that there are global challenges that cannot be overcome by a single country on its own, but, rather, through international scientific cooperation, contributes toward SD’s current importance. This kind of diplomacy can also be viewed as serving national interests. Indeed, in the field of science, there is cooperation and competition among countries. As a public diplomacy / soft power instrument, SD contributes toward the influence, attraction and international prestige of countries, regardless of their size, though the results at times take a while to appear.
In terms of both national and international organizations, SD capabilities need to be boosted. It is appropriate for professionals in the area of foreign policy to show interest in science / technology and for science-related professionals to also be interested in foreign affairs. Some conflicts of interest can arise between diplomats and scientists. The latter may fear being manipulated by politicians.
The statements whereby SD favors peace or that science is synonymous with peace could generate some controversy. On the one hand, in the sphere of SD, there are several players seeking to prevent war, by coming up with peaceful solutions to conflicts resulting from different national interests. On the other hand, as part of international relations, SD also includes hard power, which can be especially important in times of war. Still, even in times of tension between geopolitical adversaries, SD is assigned the ability to keep communication channels open.
SD is carried out differently in various parts of the world, depending on the specificities of different countries. In Portugal, with regard to SD, in terms of the Government, there is interministerial coordination, namely, for instance, between the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Considering Portugal’s history, the SD of this member-state of the European Union favors relations with the Portuguese-Speaking African Countries and East Timor. Portugal’s SD also seeks to make use of the Portuguese scientific diaspora.
About the authors:
Jorge Marinho
Jorge Marinho â PhD in Communication Sciences, BA in International Journalism.
e-mail: marinho.mediaanalysis@gmail.com
JĂşlio Ventura
JĂşlio Ventura â MA in Political Science and International Relations, BA in Law, member of the European Parliament trainee (Brussels, Belgium)
Lourenço Ribeiro
Lourenço Ribeiro â BA in Sociology, MA student in Public Policy at Iscte â University Institute of Lisbon (Portugal)
The Hague 24 March 2024. Pakistan Embassy in the Netherlands has organized the first solo exhibition of Pakistanâs leading visual artist Imran Qureshi at the prestigious Pulchri Studio. The show titled âScattered Yet Togetherâ continued till 14 April 2024.
The exhibition was officially opened by the ambassador of Pakistan H.E.Ambassador Suljuk Mustansar Tarar, Ms. Marieta Reijerkero Chairperson of Pulchri Studio, and artist Mr. Imran Qureshi.
An âArtist Talkâ with Mr. Imran Qureshi.
Ms. Marieta Reijerkero Chairperson of Pulchri Studio, in her opening remarks said that she was glad to see work of a leading Pakistani artist displayed and it was a result of two yearlong discussions with Ambassador Tarar.
Mr. Wouter Jurgens, Director for department of Asia and Oceania at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ambassador of Pakistan, H.E. Mr. Suljuk Mustansar Tarar.
An âArtist Talkâ with Mr. Imran Qureshi was also organized alongside the opening ceremony.
Ambassador Suljuk Mustansar Tarar gave an overview of how the exhibition had been curated and current status of contemporary art in Pakistan. He mentioned different genres of works and how contemporary miniature painting from Pakistan has become a global art movement. Ambassador Tarar also highlighted the cultural links between Pakistan and the Netherlands and that Pakistani visual artists like others in the world have been inspired by the Dutch masters during their education or careers.
Mr. Imran Qureshi during the talk shared how he joined the Miniature Department at National College of Arts, Lahore which was at that time one of the only places offering a graduate degree in Miniature painting. He recalled his different large-scale projects including the rooftop commission at New Yorkâs Metropolitan Museum and how he used skills of traditional miniature in evolving a large-scale contemporary work of art.
The Ambassador of Pakistan, Pakistani artist Imran Qureshi, Ambassador Dewi van der weerd, Ambassador for International cultural cooperation.
The talk and exhibition opening was attended by a large number of people. It included high ranking officials from the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, including Mr. Wouter Jurgens, Director for department of Asia and Oceania, Ambassador Dewi van der weerd, Ambassador for International cultural cooperation, Ambassador Bea ten Tusscher, the Dutch Special Envoy for Freedom of Religion and Belief, H.E. Ambassador Joanna Roper, British Ambassador to The Hague, Ambassador Thomas Drew, former British High Commissioner to Pakistan, representative from Rijksmuseum, artists, and representatives from different galleries and museums in The Hague.
Pulchri Studio is a Dutch art society established in 1847 and is housed in its current building since 1901. It is a gallery space frequently used for multiple exhibition and visited by the locals and tourists alike.
Ambassador Tarar and Ambassador Bea ten Tusscher, the Dutch Special Envoy for Freedom of Religion and Belief.
Pakistan and the Netherlands enjoy good bilateral relations. Both countries marked 75 years of their diplomatic relations in 2023. âScattered Yet Togetherâ is a Public and Cultural Diplomacy initiative by Pakistan Embassy the Netherlands to introduce Pakistani art, culture and heritage to the people of the Netherlands.
H.E. Ambassador Joanna Roper, British Ambassador to The Hague at Imran Qureshi’s exhibition titled âScattered Yet Togetherâ.
Minister Dilan YeĹilgĂśz-Zegerius speaks at Kwibuka30 Commemoration in Amsterdam
Today, Rwanda marks 30 years since the Genocide against the Tutsi. âKwibukaâ, which means to remember, is an annual period of solemn reflection when we come together to honour the victims, unite in our collective grief and renew our commitment to continue to build a better future for all Rwandans.
It started this morning at the Genocide Memorial site located in the Beatrix Park in Amsterdam. The memorial site is a place for survivors and the larger Rwandan community in the Netherlands to remember their loved ones and to pay tribute to more than one million victims of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. H.E. Ambassador Olivier J.P. Nduhungirehe, together with representatives of the Dutch Ministry of Justice and Security, IBUKA-Netherlands, the Rwanda Community in the Netherlands, the Amsterdam South District, the Diplomatic Corps, the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals, the Permanent Court of Arbitration and the Common Fund for Commodities, laid wreaths, which was followed by a one-minute silence observed in remembrance of the fallen.
Rwanda marks 30 years since the Genocide against the Tutsi, Beatrix Park in Amsterdam.
All guests joined Ambassador Nduhungirehe in the Walk to Remember through the Beatrix Park. The Walk was followed by the official commemoration ceremony at the RAI Exhibition Center.
The commemoration was attended by more than 250 guests, including guest of honour H.E. Minister Dilan YeĹilgĂśz-Zegerius, Ministry of Justice & Security of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the diplomatic community, Rwandan nationals living in the Netherlands, friends of Rwanda and many others.
Ms. Christine Safari, President of IBUKA, H.E. Minister Dilan YeĹilgĂśz-Zegerius, Ministrer of Justice & Security of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, H.E. Mr. Olivier J.P. Nduhungirehe, Ambassador of Rwanda and his spouse.
The official commemoration ceremony started with lighting of the candles, representing the ever-shining lights of the victims and this was followed by a speech given by Mrs Christine Safari, President of IBUKA (survivorsâ association in the Netherlands), a testimony by Virginie Ingabire and a speech by Hester van Buren, Deputy Mayor of the City of Amsterdam.
The official program continued with the speech by guest of honour Minister Dilan YeĹilgĂśz-Zegerius and she said that Rwanda and its people have shown immense resilience in the past 30 years. âIt is crucial to commemorate and keep the memory alive, not only for new generations in Rwanda, but for the entire international communityâ. The minister also stated that it is of importance to work together in the fight against impunity.
Commemoration 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in the Netherlands.
The ministerâs address was followed by the speech from Ambassador Olivier J.P. Nduhungirehe, who stated that this commemoration is not a Rwandan day only, itâs the âInternational Day of Reflection on the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwandaâ, as adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in a resolution of December 2003, reaffirmed in April 2020.
The theme of the commemoration remains the same: âRemember â Unite â Renewâ. We remember our loved ones slain during the genocide, we unite as a healed and reconciled people, and we renew as a society that thrives for socio-economic transformation, good governance and self-reliance.
Kwibuka 30, Amsterdam 2024.
âAs we mark the 30th anniversary of the genocide, it is important to recall that since 1994, the Kingdom of the Netherlands played a critical role in putting Rwandaâs judiciary back on its feet. That judicial cooperation with Rwanda was particularly successful on three main fronts. First, the reparation, the building and equipment of our judicial infrastructure; second, the training of the much-needed judicial personnel; and third, the investigation, extradition or prosecution of genocide fugitives who fled to the Netherlands. Rwanda will forever be grateful to the Netherlands for this successful cooperation, and we pledge to continue working with the Dutch Government to hold accountable the remaining fugitives, in order to definitely turn that page of our historyâ, the ambassador told the audience in Amsterdam today.
In the picture the ambassadors of Morocco, H.E. Mohamed Basri, the ambassador of France, H.E. Mr. François Alabrune and H.E. Mr  Greg French, Ambassador of Australia.
âThis 30th commemoration of the Genocide against the Tutsi provides an opportunity for the world to reflect on the lessons of the genocide and the battle to preserve the integrity of the historical accounts of this crime. Indeed, there has been a concerted effort to minimize or deny the genocide, using various tactics, ranging from refusing to name the group that was targeted during the genocide, questioning the numbers of victims, blaming them for causing the genocide, and even suggesting that a double genocide took place in Rwandaâ, Ambassador Nduhungirehe continued.
H.E. Mr. Olivier J.P. Nduhungirehe, Ambassador of Rwanda.
âThese tactics are not new, as they have been deployed by perpetrators and deniers of other established genocides. But if we are not careful, this distortion of historical facts could be deployed across the world, turning true history into contested debate. Rwandaâs history has shaped Rwandan shared identity – this is why the historical clarity about the Genocide against the Tutsi is of national and international importance. In this regard, the Genocide memorial that was inaugurated last year at Beatrix Park in Amsterdam, as well as all our genocide memorials in Rwanda and abroad, including the four (4) that were designated last year as UNESCO world heritage sites, are vital to anchoring the truth, which is essential to reconciliation and renewalâ, the ambassador said.
H.E. Ambassador Olivier J.P. Nduhungirehe concluded to take the opportunity to thank the guest of honour Minister Dilan YeĹilgĂśz-Zegerius, IBUKA-Netherlands and the Rwandan Diaspora association in the Netherlands for organizing this annual event in cooperation with the Embassy.
HRWF (29.03.2024) – Armed conflicts are very often triggered despite prevention efforts deployed over years and decades by domestic and foreign political powers as well as by local and international non-governmental organizations.
These conflicts cause victims among combatants but also among civilians, as shown by the ongoing wars in Ukraine and the Middle East.
By Willy FautrĂŠ, director of Human Rights Without Frontiers
In the case of Russia, as a potential threat to the security and the sovereignty of its neighboring countries, our organization, Human Rights Without Frontiers, has contributed for decades to the development of human rights NGOs and activists in the country. We have raised our voice every time restrictions of their activities and repressive measures have been taken by the Russian government to silence journalists and critical voices of civil society.
On the one hand, prevention of repeated conflicts can be effective and consolidate reconciliation and peace between historical enemies. This was the case between Germany and France with the construction of a security architecture rooted in the creation of the European Union after World War II. On the other hand, prevention is sometimes only effective for a limited period of time because a state or a non-state actor has decided to breach the international code of conduct that had been adopted, monitored and enforced by the United Nations.
The protection of civilians during wars is a major priority because they are not involved as direct actors in armed conflicts but we notice that they are more and more used as human shields, instrumentalized by warring parties and targeted on purpose by shelling to destroy the morale of the population and their political leaders.
Killing civilians is a war crime. Taking civilians as hostages is a war crime. Deporting thousands of children from the Ukrainian occupied territories to Russia is a war crime.
It is the duty of human rights organizations to monitor, document, make public war crimes, to denounce them through the various mechanisms of the United Nations and other international institutions. Such advocacy is meant to dissuade the warring parties from persisting in egregious violations of human rights but also to have an anticipation role: to avoid more civilian victims.
It is the duty of NGOs to defend the legal and moral standards meant to rule the relations between states and peoples. In the case of the deportation of 20,000 Ukrainian children to and by Russia, we have documented the issue and sent our report to the International Criminal Court. We have made it public through written and oral statements at the UN Human Rights Council but also at the last meeting of the UN Human Rights Committee on Childâs Rights which had Russia on its agenda. We have also identified a state in the Middle East which had mediated between Russia and Ukraine and had successfully managed to get from Russia the repatriation of a dozen Ukrainian children and several family reunifications. These are initiatives that NGOs are expected to take.
Furthermore, NGOs play a pivotal role in providing humanitarian assistance and support to conflict-affected populations. From delivering food aid and medical supplies to offering psychosocial support and legal assistance, they address the immediate needs of civilians caught in the turmoil of war. By operating impartially and independently, they strive to alleviate human suffering, uphold the principles of neutrality and impartiality, and safeguard the dignity and rights of all individuals, regardless of their affiliations or backgrounds.
In doing so, they bridge the gap between grassroots activism and global governance, driving systemic change and fostering environments conducive to peacebuilding.
Contributing to peace is a long-term and complex issue. A ceasefire is not peace. A frozen conflict is not peace.
Peace processes are first of all the result of political decisions by the warring parties: the aggressors and the aggressed. External pressure by international institutions such as the United Nations and by the heads of other states can lead to a truce or a temporary ceasefire to open a space for discussion and negotiations but this is only a first small and modest step in a solid peacebuilding process.
It is the duty of domestic and international human rights organizations to engage in conflict resolution and peacebuilding initiatives, working alongside local communities, civil society actors, and peace mediators to mitigate tensions. It is their duty to foster dialogue and build sustainable peace but it can take a lot of time, years and even decades. By facilitating reconciliation processes, promoting interethnic dialogue, and supporting grassroots initiatives for conflict transformation, NGOs contribute to the long-term stability and social cohesion of war-torn societies.
In essence, the role of non-profit human rights organizations in promoting peace and protecting civilians in armed conflicts is not be overstated. They serve as moral guardians of human dignity, advocates for justice, and catalysts for positive change in some of the world’s most challenging environments. However, their efforts are not without obstacles, as they often operate in hostile or restrictive contexts, facing threats to their safety, limited resources, and political obstacles.
Nonetheless, their unwavering commitment to the principles of human rights and peace remains a beacon of hope in the midst of darkness, inspiring collective action and solidarity in the pursuit of a more just and peaceful world.
But it cannot be forgotten that there is no lasting peace without justice and there can be no justice without lasting peace.
The importance of intelligence services in the area of foreign policy comprises the central topic of this work, most notably relations between intelligence analysts and policymakers. To this end, issues are addressed regarding professional ethics and politicization of intelligence services. This piece results from an exclusive interview with Eric DenÊcÊ*, Director of the French Centre for Intelligence Studies (CF2R).
According to data provided by Eric DenĂŠcĂŠ, Director of the French Centre for Intelligence Studies (CF2R), he performed the following duties, inter alia:Â
-Naval Intelligence Officer (analyst) / Strategic Evaluation Division â General Secretariat of the French National Defense
-Consultant to the French Defense Ministry in projects linked to the future of the French Special Forces and South China Sea disputes
-Served various French and European companies on intelligence, counterintelligence, information operations and risk management issues in Europe and Asia
-In France, he lectured in the field of intelligence at Ecole Nationale dâAdministration, National Defence College, Air Force College and Military School for Overseas and Foreign Assignments.
Interview
– Considering the entire intelligence cycle, to what extent is the analysis stage important?
Eric DenĂŠcĂŠ (ED): All phases of the intelligence cycle are important, analysis as much as any other, and no more than any other. Indeed, if a problem is poorly posed and the lines of research poorly defined, information gathering cannot be effective. Sometimes, even though the objectives are clearly defined, the process fails to produce results (inaccessible secrets or operational failure). Analysis can only be carried out if the information gathered by human or technical means is available.
It’s true that Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) has changed the situation, as an analysis service can now produce a result from open resources. But that’s not what we’re asking of an intelligence service, otherwise academics with a mastery of intelligence techniques would suffice!
In reality, there are two complementary but very different approaches in the intelligence field: research (using human or technical resources), i.e. the ability to access information protected by an adversary or competitor; and analysis, which is the ability to make sense of a set of data, secret or not, in the context of answering a question posed by the authorities, political or military.
– In your view, what features should be present in a good intelligence analyst in order to support a certain country’s foreign policy?
ED: The qualities required of a good analyst, whatever the subject (foreign policy is far from being the only one) are, in my opinion, the following:
– culture, both general and specialized, as he or she must be both an expert in his or her field, but also capable of widening his or her field of reflection to other areas
– a good knowledge of what fieldwork is (which is not his or her own), but which enables him or her to understand the possibilities and limits of human and technical research.
– intuition, deductive and inductive skills, the ability to make inferences,
– doubt, because he must assume that facts are often manipulated or distorted, or that his adversary is trying to intoxicate him. He must constantly look beyond appearances.
– stubbornness, because you must never be satisfied with the facts at hand; you must constantly re-investigate to get an accurate picture of the situation (while respecting the deadlines set for your mission).
– analytical and synthesizing skills, writing skills and the ability to clearly express what they know, what they don’t know and what they should continue to investigate.
– How relevant is the professional ethics of someone working in intelligence services, especially regarding analysts?
ED: To understand how ethics work in the world of intelligence, it is essential to differentiate between two things:
On the one hand, the ethics of intelligence, i.e. the very vocation of the discipline, whose purpose may be more or less easily accepted by a society, depending on its history, values and situation. The process of gathering information is in no way open to criticism. On the other hand, it can become so if the means used to achieve it are concealed, questionable or illegal.
On the other hand, the ethics of intelligence, which concern professional practices and the spirit in which the men and women who have chosen this path carry them out. But it is difficult to talk about ethics without considering each of the intelligence professions separately. Indeed, the question arises in very different ways, depending on the function under consideration:
– the ethics of the client and the purpose of the mission,
– research ethics,
– ethics in the analysis and presentation of facts to policy-makers,
– ethics in action,
– but also the ethics of the individual.
Reflection on the ethics of intelligence, initiated by the Anglo-Saxon world, is still in its infancy. It is therefore difficult to provide definitive answers to this emerging debate. Indeed, it would be a grave error to apply the ethical rules in force in other areas of social or administrative life to the intelligence services. Of course, rules are essential, but they must take into account the specific vocation of the intelligence services, because in this field even less than in any other, a code of conduct cannot be defined from the outside.
This ethical requirement is an important issue for the services themselves. Such a demanding and special profession cannot be carried out without the operators themselves having a solid moral framework and a code of conduct that provides them with the essential reference points to avoid lapsing into schizophrenia, paranoia or uncontrolled delinquency.
1.Connecting
– From your standpoint, what preparation do intelligence analysts need to collaborate with policymakers, as part of a given Government’s foreign policy?
ED: In my opinion, it is not up to analysts to present their conclusions to politicians. Any intelligence service must have its own specialists who can pass on important information, and how it reacts to them, and who also know how to gather and make them specify their requests before entrusting them to those who will plan the operational research. These men or women may be former analysts or operational people who have reached management level and are therefore in a position to dialogue with the principals. In fact, this is often a task reserved for the director or senior managers of a department. This is so the case in the United States with the President Daily Briefing.
– The way you see it, would it be useful for policymakers to get some sort of training that enables them to get to know the inner workings and actual capabilities of intelligence services?
ED: I think it’s vital that politicians with major responsibilities for national security receive at least a minimum of intelligence training. In other words, they need to know what the various agencies in the national community do, what they can and cannot do depending on their status and speciality, how they work and what they can realistically ask of them. Politicians often have two extreme attitudes when it comes to intelligence: either they despise the services and distrust the “agents”, whose ill-considered actions they fear; or they totally fantasize about what a service can do, and ask them for anything that is often unachievable… and so end up despising them in return.
It is therefore essential to explain to them clearly (and within the limits of confidentiality) what they can ask and expect from the intelligence and security services.
– In your opinion, as part of foreign policy, what advantages do policymakers have when they make their decisions based on intelligence analysis?
ED: A political leader makes policy. His decision-making system is based on his vision, his experience, the information the service can provide him with, and the information he receives from other sources (other government services, personal networks)… and his own interests. This means that he can sometimes disregard the secret information provided to him if, at the same time, he has to respond to political or electoral issues that are essential to him. But of course, it’s rare for leaders to neglect national security. But intelligence officers often fail to understand this. Their activity is really just a âserviceâ, comparable to a consulting business, and the client decides whether or not to act after receiving their reports.
– What do you feel the negative consequences of politicizing intelligence services can entail for the services in question and, as such, also for the Government itself?
ED: The politicization of intelligence is partly necessary and partly harmful.
It’s necessary in the sense that it’s good for the head of an intelligence service to be close to and trusted by a president or prime minister. It will be easier for him to explain what his agency can do… and to pass on bad news, without hiding anything.
When this is not the case (cf. the poor relations between the White House and the CIA under Bill Clinton), the service is not taken into consideration, sidelined from the centers of power, or even worse, the authorities may resort to parallel networks, with the negative effects we know about (cf. Watergate).
But politicization must be limited to this. Under no circumstances must it “descend” into the department’s operational or analytical activities, which must remain completely politically neutral, i.e. strictly professional and focused on preserving internal and external security.
*This interview was conducted, via email, on February 19, 2024
Last President of the Permanent Court of International Justice – First President of the International Court of Justice
In the annals of Salvadoran diplomacy, one name stands out as a beacon of integrity, wisdom, and commitment to justice: Dr. JosĂŠ Gustavo Guerrero. Sixty-five years after his passing, diplomatic representatives from the diplomatic community, family members, junior and senior diplomats gathered in the house of the Salvadoran Diplomacy to pay homage to a man whose life’s work continues to inspire us to strive for peace and international justice. Madam Minister of Foreign Affairs, Alexandra Hill Tinoco stated that Dr. Guerrero’s legacy is not merely a historical footnote; it is a guiding light for present and future diplomats, both in El Salvador and beyond.
Born in San Salvador in 1876, Dr. Guerrero’s journey began with a steadfast adherence to his values. Even in his youth, he displayed remarkable leadership, co-founding a student newspaper that fearlessly tackled prevailing economic concernsâa testament to his commitment to doing what was right from an early age. This courage and conviction would characterize his entire career.
Dr. Guerrero’s diplomatic odyssey commenced in 1902 when he was appointed as Consul of El Salvador in Bordeaux, marking the beginning of a distinguished trajectory. From Italy to Washington DC, and later as Envoy Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to France, Spain, and Italy, he navigated the turbulent waters of early 20th-century geopolitics with grace and diplomacy.
In an era marked by rising nationalism and imperialism, Dr. Guerrero’s writings reflected a deep appreciation for the art of diplomacyâa realm where courtesy, restraint, and mutual respect were paramount. His experiences in Europe during this tumultuous period shaped his understanding of international relations and underscored the importance of dialogue and cooperation in fostering peace.
Dr. JosĂŠ Gustavo Guerrero, Last President of the Permanent Court of International Justice – First President of the International Court of Justice.
Dr. Guerrero’s contributions extended beyond diplomatic missions; he played a pivotal role in shaping international law and order. As a member of the Commission for the Progressive Codification of International Law, he contributed to treaty negotiations that laid the groundwork for the modern global order. His expertise and negotiating acumen earned him recognition as a Member of the Court of the Permanent Court of Arbitrationâa testament to his diplomatic prowess.
His tenure as Minister of Foreign Affairs of El Salvador saw the professionalization of diplomatic and consular careers in El Salvador, leaving an indelible mark on future generations of Salvadoran diplomats. His legacy is commemorated annually on June 26th, a fitting tribute to his service and dedication to the diplomatic corps.
In 1931, Dr. Guerrero embarked on a new chapter as a Judge of the world’s highest Court of Justiceâa role he would later assume as President of the Court. Amidst the chaos of World War II, his unwavering courage was on full display when he stood up to the German high command to protect the sanctity of the Permanent Court of International Justiceâa testament to his commitment to justice in the face of adversity.
Beyond his judicial duties, Dr. Guerrero remained deeply connected to his Salvadoran roots. His vision for a unified Central America may not have come to fruition, but his efforts laid the groundwork for the Central American Integration System (SICA), providing a platform for regional cooperation and solidarity.
Dr. Guerrero’s legacy extends far beyond his diplomatic and judicial achievements; he was a patriot and a visionary who believed that peace could only be achieved through justice. His seminal work, “The International Order,” continues to influence scholars and practitioners alike, reminding us that the pursuit of peace requires a steadfast commitment to justice and equity.
According to Dr. Philippe Couvreur, former Registrar of the International Court of Justice, the tribute to Dr. Guerrero undoubtedly represents a vibrant homage to the country of his birth, whose image he consistently elevated and whose interests he staunchly defended, alongside those of the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Court of Justice, where he served as a pivotal figure and served as the quintessential link. By ensuring continuity between both Courts, Dr. Guerrero decisively contributed to the development of a robust and effective international justice system, which has proven its significance, both as a tool for preventive diplomacy and during moments of acute international crisis.
As we honor the life and legacy of Dr. JosĂŠ Gustavo Guerrero, let us not merely commemorate the past but draw inspiration from his example to chart a course towards a more just and peaceful world. In a time marked by uncertainty and division, his vision of diplomacy guided by values of integrity, tolerance, and mutual respect remains as relevant as everâa timeless reminder of the power of diplomacy to build bridges and forge a brighter future for generations to come.
In March 2024,H.E. Ambassador AgustĂn VĂĄsquez GĂłmez had the distinct privilege of presenting in San Salvador a publication emanating from the research endeavors of the Diplomatic Institute “Dr. JosĂŠ Gustavo Guerrero.” This meticulous study delved into the illustrious life and profound contributions of a distinguished Salvadoran luminary. Through his erudition, magnetism, and remarkable ability to connect with the needs of the Nations at his time, he indelibly imprinted upon the collective conscience the noble pursuit of global peace and justice, a legacy that still sounds within the halls of the International Court of Justice.
Its Contributions to International Law and Diplomacy
ByH.E. Mr. J. Eduardo Malaya
Eminent international law personalities from 122 countries will converge on June 12 at the Peace Palace in The Hague for a rare Congress of the Members of the Court of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA). This gathering of individuals representing the Contracting Parties to the 1899 and 1907 Conventions for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes will assess the past and current workings of the organization and chart out its future. The significance of the Congress, which has the theme âCourt fit for its Time: Continuing the Evolution of the Permanent Court of Arbitration towards the fulfilment of its Promise,â is underpinned by its being only the third time in the organizationâs 125-year history that such a meeting will take place.
The prominence of The Hague as City of Peace and Justice â or as referred to by UN Secretary General Boutrous Boutrous-Ghali, the âlegal capital of the worldâ â derives from having the Peace Palace, a seven-hectare compound with a beautiful Neo-Renaissance building which hosts three of the worldâs most cherished international law institutions â the PCA, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the century-old Hague Academy of International Law.
The PCAâs contributions to the peaceful settlement of disputes and the development of international law are fairly well known. Since its establishment in 1899, the PCA has institutionalized the practice of arbitration and other forms of dispute resolution between states, and made them more accessible. The awards and decisions rendered by its various tribunals and commissions, including the landmark 1928 case Island of Las Palmas, has significantly enriched international law.
Origins of Multilateralism
Less known but equally significant is the PCAâs contributions to diplomacy as we know it today. The first International Peace Conference held in The Hague in 1899 that gave birth to the PCA also planted the seeds that later germinated into the League of Nations and the Permanent Court of International Justice and their successors, the UN and its judicial organ, the ICJ.
As Prof Harold Hongju Koh noted at a forum in June 2023, the 1899 Hague Conference was innovative in many ways. âIt was the first official peace conference that did not occur in the aftermath of a major war. It was the beginning of the modern form of international conference like the League of Nations and the United Nations.Second, it was the first major conference that represented a wide range of the world’s nation states, from the West, the East and the Americas, each given a single equal vote. So, whereas not exclusively limited to Western powers, it was not just a great power exercise, it was a global gathering, a precursor to today’s General AssemblyâŚâ
The conference established the PCA, a pioneer of the modern forms of international dispute resolution, and saw the birth of modern multilateralism, the organizing principle of the UN and similar bodies.
A Court fit for the times
In operations for the last 125 years, the PCA has developed into a modern, multi-faceted arbitral institution perfectly situated to meet the evolving dispute resolution needs of the international community. It has a three-part organizational structure consisting of an Administrative Council composed of representatives of its 122 Contracting Parties that oversees its policies and budgets, a panel of independent potential arbitrators known as the Members of the Court, and the Secretariat, known as the International Bureau, headed by the Secretary-General.
After prolonged periods of inactivity, the PCA had a revival in the late eighties and has since evolved into a modern international dispute settlement institution with one of the heaviest caseloads of all international courts, supporting in 2023 alone a record 218 registry cases and handling 50 requests relating to its appointing authority functions.
The PCA has also assisted the UN in peacemaking and resolving conflicts through its mechanisms, such as the Eritrea/Yemen dispute and the Abyei Arbitration. With its services forming a fundamental aspect of the rule of law, the PCA has helped promote the UN’s three pillars of peace and security, human rights and development, and assist in achieving the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals.
With the ICJ focused on judicial settlement of disputes, PCA offers enquiry, mediation, conciliation and arbitration, thus together they cover all the means for the peaceful settlement of disputes recommended in Article 33 of the UN Charter. In view of this, U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan in 2004 described the PCA and ICJ as âcomplementary institutions offering the international community a comprehensive range of options for the pacific settlement of international disputes.â
Mr. Jose Eduardo Malaya
Governance reforms
The PCAâs procedural rules have been updated and modernized, and its areas of competence expanded into new areas of dispute resolution, notably the adoption of procedural rules for arbitration and conciliation of disputes regarding natural resources and the environment, and the outer space. Its role has been enhanced in administering arbitration under Annex VII of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, serving as registry for almost all of the UNCLOS arbitrations conducted pursuant to said Annex, and the only compulsory conciliation conducted pursuant to Annex V.
To make its services more accessible in different regions of the world, the PCA now has offices in Buenos Aires, Hanoi, Mauritius, Singapore and Vienna.
Reforms have improved its organizational governance, with the conduct in 2021 of the first-ever competitive election for the position of Secretary General, currently held by Dr. Marcin Czepelak, the first non-Dutch in said office. The position of acting President of the Administration Council was created in 2019, and it is now rotated among the regional groups every two years.
Towards a meaningful 125th anniversary
It has been a distinct honor for me to have been elected in late 2022 as Acting President of the Administrative Council for term 2023-2024. To highlight the contributions of the PCA to international peace and security, I initiated and worked with Secretary General Czepelac and colleagues at the Philippine Mission to the UN in New York and a Core Group of link-minded missions on the adoption of a UN General Assembly resolution for the anniversary.
The UN reinforced its bonds with the PCA when on August 1, 2023, the General Assembly adopted Resolution A/RES/77/322 welcoming the anniversary and commending the PCA for its significant contributions to world peace and justice. âRecognizing the important contribution of the PCA to the peaceful settlement of disputes,â the General Assembly âencourages Member States to make use of the PCAâs services, consistent with international law, in arbitration, conciliation, mediation, commission of inquiry, and other peaceful means of dispute resolution and to support (its) activitiesâŚâ
The UNGA resolution is significant for at least three reasons. It was adopted by consensus, with 120 co-sponsors, which is a remarkable majority at a time when the assembly is often polarized. It is only the second resolution ever from the UNGA on the PCA, the first one in 1993 when the latter was invited to participate in its proceedings as an observer. The call for accession is also timely as only 122 of the 193 UN Member States are PCA Contracting Parties, and thus 71 are yet to be part of it.
To lend a festive air to the upcoming anniversary and upon the invitation of the Embassy of the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Concert Chorus (UPCC) will visit The Hague and perform at the Diligentia Theater on June 6, a few days before the Congress. The countryâs premier and multi-awarded university-based choir, the UPCC has gained acclaim in bridging musical genres such as classical, folk, pop and Broadway with their signature âchoreocapellaâ (choreographed a capella singing) and will highlight songs of peace, among others.
In an era where international peace and security are facing serious challenges, the PCA’s services take on even greater significance. To the surprise of perhaps its founders 125 years ago, the PCA has endured, adapted and thrived, akin to a wise person who regained youthful strides.
About the author:
Ambassador J. Eduardo Malaya
Mr. Jose Eduardo Malaya, is the Acting President of the PCA Administrative Council for term 2023-2024, a Member of the Court of the PCA, and the Ambassador of the Philippines to the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Dunhuang is an oasis town at the edge of the edge of the Taklamakan Desert. Its waters have welcomed travellers over the centuries. I was privileged to be there in 2017. Nearby are the Mogao caves, with their Buddhist images and decoration.
They are also famous for the thousands of documents discovered there, and stolen/saved by the Western archaeologists, which shed new light on the culture, beliefs, and daily life between 1500 and 1000 years ago.
In September 1987 a maintenance crew, working on a road some 64 kms east of Dunhuang, stumbled across an area of grey coloured sand indicating the existence of some ancient building.
The chief archaeologist went in person to investigate. It cost him a whole day simply to locate the site, but on the second he and his team found some pottery and some silk that allowing them to place the site in the Western Han Dynasty (202BCE-220CE). What they had discovered was one of the 80 postal stations between Chang’an (the capital of Han dynasty China) and Dunhuang, one almost every 20 kilometers.
It was important discovery â no more, no less. However, when two years later, evidence emerged that the site was becoming prey to looters, the authorities authorised an emergency rescue excavation. The excavations lasted until 1992 and it took another three years to register all the finds.
Archive photograph of the Excavations
A total of more than 70,000 pieces of various cultural relics were unearthed, including 30,000 pieces of pottery, 6000 pieces of wool, pieces of metal tools, remnants of food and the bones of various animals.
Most important of all, they discovered more than 23,000 Chinese bamboo slips with Chinese characters, 10 silk books, 10 paper documents, and more than 460 pieces of linen paper. It is these that allow us to reconstruct daily life of an outpost at the edge of the empire.
Aerial view of the excavated Xuanquanzhi site
The written slips of bamboo tell us how this the site acquired its name. Legend had it that a general provided water for his thirsty troops be striking a rock with his sabre allowing water to flow. Its source was four miles up a ravine to the north of the pavilion. The spring was rumoured to be magical, adjusting its flow according to the number of people needing it. The name âpavilionâ changed over timeâŚ. from pavilion, to shelter, to post-station, to relay-station. Its functions remained the same â facilitating the movement of correspondence, receiving official delegations, and providing food and accommodation for travellers.
The site itself was a based on a 50Ă50-meter square courtyard with high walls (to protect from the high winds) and 29 earthen houses of various sizes inside and outside the courtyard. There were also some auxiliary buildings such as stables on the south and east sides of the courtyard. Moreover, a one-kilometre section of the post road, four metres wide, was discovered near the north wall.
The most complete set of eighteen bamboo slips
The bamboo slips provide the insights into daily life at the edge of the empire. This was not easy since they were mostly written in a script that has long since disappeared. This turned out to be a kind of simplified-Chinese developed by the military as a form of shorthand for writing messages quickly. The most complete document comprised 18 slips.
It also captures one of the main functions â receiving official delegations. It is early spring and the weather is cold. Se Fuhing, the chief officer of the station learns that a delegation of 84 officials and 300 soldiers belonging to Changluo Hou Changhui, a high ranking courtier, was due to pass by. Knowing the imperial hierarchy, Se Fuhing decides to pull out all the stops and preside over a feast for his guests – there are more than ten kinds of food on the table: beef, sheep, chicken, fish, wine, rice, millet, sauce, black beans and soup.
Artistâs impression of the Hanging Spring Pavilion
Kings and queens, ambassadors and envoys, from over 20 countries are recorded as having passed through the Hanging Springâs facilities. In one reception, the King of Khotan arrived with 1,060 followers and more than 300 cups were used (everyone got to eat, only the more distinguished guests got to drink).
The passage of Princess Winsum required the laying of a special carpet in the dining room. On and on go the records â delegations of 34, 35, 70, 300, and even bigger passed through the site (those not qualified for a room slept in tents in the courtyard). In many cases, the accompanying cattle, camels and horses were also recorded â these would be part of âtribute tradeâ which was really a form of high-stakes barter trade. There is one thing that is missing from all of this â there are no records of caravans passing through and in all the documentation, only 20 slips have any mention of trade goods. This should not be taken to mean that there was no trade. Many of the slips record along-side the âtributeâ animals, the presence of âprivateâ horses and camels. Clearly private merchants were travelling with the delegations, or even masquerading as official delegations.
On the wall of one of the outer buildings, archaeologists found the inscription of an Imperial edict dating from 5CE â entitled The Monthly Ordinances for the Four Seasons. There are 50 monthly orders that specify what should be done and what should not be done each month. The orders establish that all work involving agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, logging and fishing should follow the natural time sequence, in effect trying to ââprotect the agricultural ecosystem, forest resources, animal and water resources⌠possibly the worldâs earliest “Environmental Protection Law”.
A letter home
Finally, I must mention one personal letter, written on silk and beautifully preserved. It is written by Yuan, a junior officer, to his friend and colleague, Zifang. After the usual greetings, there follows a list of suggestions and requests â buy yourself some new leather shoes and five good quality brushes, donât forget to visit Jing Zifang, remind the family to write, to get a private seal engraved for Lu An, and buy Gua Yingwie a whip. I wonder if this was his own copy and whether the original was even posted. Did Guo Yingwei ever get his whip?
The site has now been backfilled to protect its integrity. Visitors can see the outlines and the corner piers on the north east and southwest. Meanwhile, there are tens of other post- and relay stations waiting to be discovered. Time will tell what treasures they will reveal. The Hanging Spring Pavilion is one of the ten sites featured in an exhibition about the Caravanserai of the silk road.
Screen shot of the Caravnserai Exhibition
You can find the exhibition and the supporting eLibrary at:
In the diplomatic world, it is not uncommon for partners of diplomats to leave their jobs behind to travel the world and pursue new opportunities, sometimes even new career paths. There are only a few cases in which both partners can continue their initial careers and develop professionally unhindered. When it comes to diplomats, these happy cases are even rarer.
Sonja Gebauer, now Head of Press and Protocol Department and Political Counsellor at the Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in Bucharest, is one of them. Married to a career diplomat, she had the chance to see the diplomatic world from two different perspectives: as a diplomat herself and as a diplomatic spouse.
âBoth my husband and I always had the chance to work together at the German Embassy during our postings abroad. And I am very grateful to the Federal Foreign Office that they are supportive of couples being posted together which is, of course, not always easy to organize. I consider it a great privilege to represent my country as a diplomat abroad, thereby contributing to foster the relations of Germany with our many partners in the world. I joined the German diplomatic service more than 25 years ago and one thing that fascinated me from the beginning was that I was able to get to know new people, explore new countries and dive into different cultures. Having a Master in Political Sciences I am interested in international politics and even after such a long time being a diplomat is the most rewarding job I can imagine. I had the chance to live in New York, Tel Aviv, Tokyo, Bangkok and now in Bucharest and I can say that each of these postings was amazing. I am thankful for all the experiences and the different areas I could work in, be it in the political, economic or cultural field, but most fulfilling is of course the opportunity to meet many interesting people during your time abroad.
Sonja Gebauer, Head of Press and Protocol Department and Political Counsellor at the Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in Bucharest. Copyright @Adrian Cobzasu
It´s hard to say where I felt happiest, because each of these postings reflects a different, very special period of my life. Obviously, it´s fascinating to start as a young diplomatic trainee in your early twenties in New York, the city that really never sleeps. But it was also a wonderful experience for me and my husband to serve as young German diplomats in Israel and in Japan. And I also remember how exciting it was to move abroad for the first time with our two little children to Bangkok. I have very fond memories of all these stations in my life.â
Sonja says that, with time, she found the right attitude to enjoy each move and embrace each change with hope and excitement. âOf course, moving every three to four years is sometimes exhausting, but I always felt very energized when we learnt where we were moving next. I think it´s good to concentrate on the positive sides of a new posting â be it the beautiful nature, exciting new city, nice weather etc. and not to think about what you are missing or what is maybe not as convenient as back home. This has always helped me to enjoy each posting and make the best out of it.
If you ask me where HOME is, it´s now clearly Berlin! I grew up in the countryside near Stuttgart, my family is still living there and we visit them often. But Berlin is HOME now, where both our children were born, where we have most of our friends, our house and where we have been working for the Federal Foreign Office in between postings abroad â it´s our home base so to say and will always be.â
She is clearly passionate about her work, which, she confesses, she doesnât see as a â9 to 5â job. âYou can be part of deepening the relations between Germany and your host country â and this can be done in so many ways, depending where you are: Be it peace mediation in conflict situations, supporting civil society and cultural diplomacy or promoting German businesses abroad.â
Sonja and husband, Dr Peer Gebauer. Copyright @Adrian Cobzasu
She always gets involved with local NGOs and women networks; she builds networks and friendships wherever they are. âI am very grateful for the many fascinating and courageous women I met all over the world. This has inspired me a lot to advocate our âFeminist Foreign Policyâ in order to make sure that women and girls have equal rights, representation and resources, because our societies are more successful if we have an equal participation of women and if all groups of society are involved. Strong female networks help in achieving this goal. Therefore, we have founded a Women´s Association, âFrauen@diploâ, in our Federal Foreign Office a few years ago in order to promote gender equality both in our foreign policy but also within our Ministry. Here in Romania, I am amazed about the wonderful and active civil society. We work with many NGOs, agencies and politicians to support gender equality and fight against gender based violence. Raising awareness is so important!â
She is an active and involved woman who often tries to juggle between all the responsibilities she has in everyday life, as diplomat, wife and mother. âIn general, I think it´s essential that we try to combine both, being posted abroad as a diplomatic spouse but also pursue our own profession, interests or hobbies. I like travelling, try to do sports, but I have to admit that with a full-time job and two children I don´t have so much time for hobbies.â
Sonja speaks modestly about all the activities and the many hats she wears. She encourages all diplomatic partners to find their role, separate from that of their spouses. âYou certainly have your own role to play and you can contribute to diplomatic relations as yourself, as an individual and not only as the spouse of⌠I think it´s important to build your own networks when you move to a new posting, get engaged, meet with civil society groups.â
Experience speaks for itself, and Sonja adds at the end: âyou need to think positive and always try to look at the beautiful and interesting aspects of life, your new host country, the new people you meet, the new adventures that are waiting for you!â
About the author:
Alexandra Paucescu
Alexandra Paucescu- Author of âJust a Diplomatic Spouseâ Romanian, management graduate with a Master in business, cultural diplomacy and international relations studies.
She speaks Romanian, English, French, German and Italian, gives lectures on intercultural communication and is an active NGO volunteer.
1.Connecting
