Eurojust supports searches in Germany, Italy and Hungary against use of faulty emission devices in Japanese cars

Eurojust is assisting authorities in Germany, Italy and Hungary with a series of searches to counter the use of faulty emission devices in engines, used in cars of a Japanese producer. The devices were allegedly fitted in the Italian-built diesel engines of large numbers of cars, giving the impression that the vehicles’ nitrogen oxide emissions were in line with EU regulations. The engines were later assembled into various models of the car manufacturer at a Hungarian production plant.

The aim of the searches, which are taking place at the request of the Economic Crime Unit of the General Public Prosecutor’s Office (PPO) of Frankfurt am Main, is to secure various documents, data and correspondence. This information will later be examined further and analysed by the judicial authorities concerned.

The car producer, with its European headquarters based in Germany, is supposed to be aware that as of 2018 diesel engines have been fitted with the devices. These showed that the emission rates of nitrogen oxide were in compliance with the legal EU emission norms, whereas according to investigations so far, they seem to be above the set limits. The devices were obtained by the Italian engine producer from another Italian supplier.

Eurojust has organised a coordination meeting to prepare for the searches of business locations in Bensheim and Heidelberg in Germany, Corbetta in Italy and Esztergom in Hungary. Furthermore, the Agency is providing support to enable a swift cross-border judicial coordination between the authorities involved.

The operation was carried out on the ground by:

  • Germany: General PPO Frankfurt am Main, Hesse State Police
  • Italy: PPO Turin, Guardia di Finanza Turin and Milan
  • Hungary: Police Headquarters of County KomĂĄrom-Esztergom

Kyrgyzstan, the uniqueness of the nature

Presentation of the tourism potential of Kyrgyzstan for travel agencies from the Benelux countries in Brussels

On April 14, 2022 the Embassy of the Kyrgyz Republic to the Kingdom of Belgium presented the tourism potential of Kyrgyzstan for the Benelux countries under the slogan: “Kyrgyzstan – place for your vacation“.

The event was held ahead of the opening of the summer tourist season – 2022 in Kyrgyzstan after a two-year global lockdown.

Representatives of travel agencies and operators, as well as media specializing in tourism and travel from the Benelux countries, were presented with video and photo materials, information and statistics kindly provided to the Embassy by the Department of Tourism under the Ministry of Culture, Information, Sports and Youth Policy of the Kyrgyz Republic.

Yurts, Kyrgyzstan.

During the presentation representatives of the International Production Company “Eccholine” from Belgium, who visited Kyrgyzstan in 2021 to film the adventure reality show “Pekin Express”, also presented their story of filming, travel and the nature of Kyrgyzstan, answered the tour operators’ questions in a trusted format.

H.E. Mr. Muktar Djumaliev, Ambassador of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan.

For the reference: From February 10, 2022 the Belgian TV channel Club RTL every Friday broadcasts the TV show “Pekin Express – In the countries of the golden eagle“. The show is also broadcasted on the French TV channel M6. According to TV show ratings, each episode was watched by over 2.3 million viewers in France and about 120 000 viewers in Belgium. At the moment, the Production Company is working on the possibility of broadcasting this TV show on a commercial basis on TV channels in other EU countries.

Photo exhibition about the uniqueness of the nature of Kyrgyzstan, accompanied by Kyrgyz folk melodies and treats with traditional dishes, immersed the presentation participants in the atmosphere of national character, culture and life of Kyrgyz nomads.

Cooperation between the Embassy of Kyrgyzstan to Belgium and foreign and national travel agencies, tour operators, as well as the media representatives, contributes to the practical popularization of the Kyrgyz destination among the European travelers and tourists.

Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina visits International Criminal Court

On 26 April 2022, H.E. Mr. Ć efik DĆŸaferović, Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, visited the International Criminal Court (“ICC” or “the Court”), where he was received by the President of the Court, Judge Piotr HofmaƄski, and ICC Deputy Prosecutors Mame Mandiaye Niang and Nazhat Shameem Khan.

On behalf of the ICC, President Piotr HofmaƄski thanked Mr DĆŸaferović for honouring the Court with his visit and stated: “As the ICC faces a higher workload than ever before, the support and full cooperation of States is of crucial importance for the Court to be able to discharge its impartial and independent mandate effectively, and we are grateful to be able to count on Bosnia and Herzegovina in this respect.”

Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina visits International Criminal Court.

Chairman of the Presidency H.E. Ć efik DĆŸaferović said: “Bosnia and Herzegovina strongly supports the International Criminal Court. The full respect of International law is the only way to guarantee the lasting peace and security. All war criminals have to know that at the end of the day they will have to face the international justice.”

The visit of Chairman of the Presidency H.E. Ć efik DĆŸaferović to the ICC highlights Bosnia and Herzegovina’s commitment to the Court and the joint efforts deployed in the fight against the impunity of the perpetrators of the most serious crimes that affect the international community as a whole.

Bosnia and Herzegovina signed the Rome Statute on 17 July 2000 and deposited its instrument of ratification of the Rome Statute on 11 April 2002.

A Croatian Concert

By August Zeidman

For those who found themselves in the Koorenhuis Cultural Center on the evening of March 23, 2022, they were immersed in an environment of beautiful music and sublime culture. The Embassy of Croatia in the Netherlands and H.E. Ambassador Ms Dubravka Plejic Markovic, in collaboration with the Varazdin School of Music and the Royal Conservatory in The Hague, treated attendees to a concert that was truly magical.

The Ambassador of Croatia, H.E. Ms. Dubravka Plejic Markovic.

The Varazdin School of Music is one of the oldest and most prestigious educational institutions in Croatia, having been founded in 1828 in the beautiful environs of the mountains and forests near Croatia’s modern border with Slovenia.

This concert was an excellent opportunity for students of such an important and historic institution to travel and share their talents with a wider audience and to collaborate with students of the Netherlands’ own prestigious conservatory; a true gift for artistic experience.

Sven Tomašek, Croatian Concert.

The event itself was a joy shared by all in attendance as they saw and heard a number of different musical styles and instruments in use. Pieces utilizing flute, piano, violin, and more offered guests a true musical buffet on which to satiate their cultural appetite. Performances ranged from solos to quartets, giving all the artists an opportunity to give their best to the present appreciators of fine music and to be recognized for their skills and the importance of the represented musical institutions.

The fact that March 23 was a beautiful spring day, spent in the grand company of the historic Koorenhuis and in rapture of performers’ best work; it can only be a recipe for a perfect day.

Marija M. Kočila (mezzo) and Izidora Mustak, Croatian Concert.

Leiden University talks on Belarus

By August Zeidman

Dr. Stanislav Vassilevsky, Counsellor at the Embassy of the Republic of Belarus in The Hague, met and held a discussion with students of Leiden University at the Wijnhaven Campus in Den Haag. The event, which was organized by students, aimed to explore some of the more difficult aspects of practical diplomacy, especially in understanding its role between politically counter-aligned nations.

Dr. Vassilevsky was grateful to have the opportunity to meet with students and students were generally appreciative of the opportunity to direct questions they may have had directly to a representative of a country that has attracted significant controversy amongst the European community.

Economic matters were discussed, with Dr. Vassilevsky giving a brief presentation on the various export products of Belarus and showing their connection to European markets at the time in a variety of industries which, in 2021, had much recovered from a dip in engagement from 2020, though now things have greatly reduced once again. Belarus is a significant exporter of, besides petroleum products, potassium products, wooden materials, and dairy.

Additionally, the prescient political matters in Belarus of Autumn 2021 were also discussed. These included the nature and extent of the 2020 anti-government protests, the associated diverting of a flight over Belarusian airspace, and the, at the time, refugee crisis at the Polish-Belarusian border.

Leiden University, The Hague Campus during Belarusian conference.

Dr. Vassilevsky offered and explained his own insights as well as the perspective of the government that he represents on each of these matters, while engaging with the many questions posed by the diverse audience of students who drew from a wide geographical and cultural background of perspectives.

He offered points and research for consideration and encouraged students to be mindful of and examine the political motivations and biases of media in their own environments and countries, even those that are ostensibly ‘objective’. For example, he asked students to think about similar anti-government protests, which, in some Western nations had been faced with a similar level of government hostility, and questioned the difference in presentation and tone taken when considering movements in one state versus another. Just as Dr. Vassilevsky did with students, some members of the audience reciprocated and attempted to ask questions and bring up points which may help attain a better understanding between opposing perspectives.

Belarus potential exports to Europe.

Points of practicality were discussed as well, such as the diplomatic situation of Belarus with Europe and the Netherlands in particular; the current and future status of the Union State with Russia; and also just about life as a diplomat in The Hague.

It was a friendly and interesting event where almost everyone in attendance walked away with things to think about and discuss. Perhaps we should all take a bit of Dr. Vassilevsky’s advice and remain skeptical, curious, and questioning.

Costa Rica Stop Animal-Selfies

The Republic of Costa Rica holds an important place in the world as one of the most significant national supporters of ecological and animal protections. The protection and preservation of their natural environment and around the world has long been a core tenet within their national politics and diplomacy. This emphasis continues even in the Netherlands as Ambassador of Costa Rica, H.E. Mr. Arnoldo Brenes Castro hosts events on this topic, including one on September 16, 2021, highlighting the harmful practice of “animal selfies” and the importance of reducing direct human (read: tourist) contact with wildlife.

Because of the COVID-19 restrictions in place at the time and the limited space at the Embassy of Costa Rica, only a small group was able to physically attend the presentation, but far more had the good fortune to join digitally. Participating was a representative from Costa Rica’s National Commission on Biodiversity, specifically the head of the “Stop Animal Selfies” campaign; the Embassy staff; a representative from the World Animal Protection organization; and a representative of the Dutch animal rights political party, PvdD.

Objectives

  • Informe and educate tourists about appropriate wildlife tourism practices through observation and species conservation.
  • Protect tourists from possible risks associated with direct contact with wildlife.
  • Protect wildlife from practices that put it at risk, through capturing from the natural environment and mishandling in captivity.
  • Effectively implement national wildlife regulations.

This event aimed to express the importance of the issue of human contact with wildlife and to share the objectives of Costa Rica’s national campaign on the subject. The project aims to educate tourists about responsible ecological tourism practices which emphasize conservation; to protect wildlife from harmful practices and mistreatment; and to remove Costa Rica as one of the top ten nations in which tourists take photos directly with wildlife. These are important issues for their government and should be for anyone interested in ecological protection.

The campaign also necessarily relies on a social media element, encouraging people to take a selfie with a toy animal and share with the hashtag #stopanimalselfies and with the caption, “I don’t harm wild animals for a selfie” for raising awareness of the issue and their website provides many resources for education on responsible wildlife tourism practices.

The project has been recognized by ecological groups around the globe for its importance, with Roberto Vieto, wildlife manager for World Animal Protection saying, “We congratulate the Costa Rica government for leading this ambitious initiative and pioneering responsible tourism in the region and around the world.”

The event held in the Netherlands was an important opportunity to share and educate a wider community on this subject and, importantly, Ambassador Castro acts not just as an advocate for Costa Rica, but for ecological protection across the globe.

Information at stopanimalselfies.org

ICC participates in joint investigation team supported by Eurojust on alleged core international crimes in Ukraine

The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in The Hague will become a participant in the joint investigation team (JIT) on alleged core international crimes committed in Ukraine. The JIT, which was set up with Eurojust support on 25 March by Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine, aims to facilitate investigations and prosecutions in the concerned states as well as those that could be taken forward before the ICC. 

ICC Prosecutor, Karim A.A. Khan QC

ICC Prosecutor Mr Karim A.A. Khan QC and the Prosecutors General of the three countries involved signed an agreement on the first-ever participation of the Office of the Prosecutor in a JIT, today. With this agreement, the JIT parties and the Office of the Prosecutor are sending a clear message that all efforts will be undertaken to effectively gather evidence on core international crimes committed in Ukraine and bring those responsible to justice.

The main purpose of the JIT is to facilitate investigations and international judicial cooperation. The agreement with the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICC will enable rapid and real-time coordination and cooperation with the JIT partner countries, in connection with investigations conducted by the OTP and competent national authorities.

The OTP is an independent prosecutorial and investigative office established by the Rome Statute of the ICC. On 2 March 2022, following the referral of the situation in Ukraine to the Prosecutor of the ICC by an unprecedented 39 States Parties, Prosecutor Khan announced the opening of an active investigation.

Prosecutor Khan and the Prosecutors-General of Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine at the signing ceremony today.

The need for closer cooperation on investigations into alleged core international crimes committed in Ukraine was underlined last week during a coordination meeting at Eurojust between the JIT partners, the ICC, National Members of EU countries at the Agency and third states with Liaison Prosecutors at the Agency. Since 2018, Ukraine has been one of the 10 non-EU Member States that has a Liaison Prosecutor at Eurojust.

The Agency will support the JIT partners in the entire process with operational, analytical, legal and financial assistance. Eurojust also accommodates the coordination and cooperation between all national investigating and prosecuting authorities that have initiated investigations into core international crimes.

NCHR presents Uzbekistan’s experience in the repatriation of its citizens

More than 530 people were returned to Uzbekistan in 2019-2021 from disadvantaged regions such as Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan.

This was noted at the thematic roundtable discussion by Akmal Saidov, First Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Chamber of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Director of the National Center for Human Rights (NCHR).

The roundtable discussion was organized by the Senate of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the Commissioners of the Oliy Majlis for human rights and children’s rights, the NCHR, the UN OHCHR Regional Office for Central Asia. It was devoted to the issues of strengthening the role and capabilities of national human rights institutions in monitoring and evaluating activities for the reintegration and resocialization of repatriates from conflict zones.

As Mr. Akmal Saidov emphasized, the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan, within the framework of a humane policy, carried out 5 special operations “Mehr” to evacuate citizens of Uzbekistan from the above countries. There are more than 120 women and about 380 children of the total number of those returned.

The Government of Uzbekistan adopted normative-legal acts for their social adaptation and created republican and territorial interdepartmental commissions, which carried out rehabilitation and social adaptation measures for repatriates, their employment, and placement of children in kindergartens and schools, etc.

On March 15, 2022, within the framework of the 49th session of the UN Human Rights Council, a report was heard by the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Fionnuala D. Ní Aoláin, following a visit to Uzbekistan on November 29 – December 7 last year.

She highly appreciated the activities of Uzbekistan Government in the repatriation and reintegration of women and children from Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan. According to her, the repatriation model created in Uzbekistan and based on the family and community is an example of best practices in repatriation, ensuring the best interests of the child and the full reintegration of women.

NCHR presents Uzbekistan’s experience in the repatriation of its citizens

More than 530 people were returned to Uzbekistan in 2019-2021 from disadvantaged regions such as Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan.

This was noted at the thematic roundtable discussion by Akmal Saidov, First Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Chamber of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Director of the National Center for Human Rights (NCHR).

The roundtable discussion was organized by the Senate of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the Commissioners of the Oliy Majlis for human rights and children’s rights, the NCHR, the UN OHCHR Regional Office for Central Asia. It was devoted to the issues of strengthening the role and capabilities of national human rights institutions in monitoring and evaluating activities for the reintegration and resocialization of repatriates from conflict zones.

As Mr. Akmal Saidov emphasized, the Government of the Republic of Uzbekistan, within the framework of a humane policy, carried out 5 special operations “Mehr” to evacuate citizens of Uzbekistan from the above countries. There are more than 120 women and about 380 children of the total number of those returned.

The Government of Uzbekistan adopted normative-legal acts for their social adaptation and created republican and territorial interdepartmental commissions, which carried out rehabilitation and social adaptation measures for repatriates, their employment, and placement of children in kindergartens and schools, etc.

On March 15, 2022, within the framework of the 49th session of the UN Human Rights Council, a report was heard by the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, Fionnuala D. Ní Aoláin, following a visit to Uzbekistan on November 29 – December 7 last year.

She highly appreciated the activities of Uzbekistan Government in the repatriation and reintegration of women and children from Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan. According to her, the repatriation model created in Uzbekistan and based on the family and community is an example of best practices in repatriation, ensuring the best interests of the child and the full reintegration of women.

Concerning private sector, privatization and demonopolization

By Obid Khakimov, director of the Center for Economic Research and Reforms under the Administration of the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan.

On April 8, 2022 the President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev signed a Decree in which goals are set extensively with specific timeframes for taking measures in a number of key areas of the country’s economic development to create favorable conditions for the development of the private sector, as well as measures to accelerate the process of privatization, the fight against corruption and demonopolization.

It should be noted that this Presidential Decree is directly related to the “Development Strategy of New Uzbekistan for 2022-2026”. If briefly and abstractly, the goals of the Decree are aimed at achieving stable economic growth, increasing the competitiveness of the national economy and reducing the state share in the private sector’s economy. At the same time, it provides the liberalization of the market of goods and services where the state share presents, the creation of equal conditions for business entities, an accelerated transition to market relations, a drastic increase of private investments, further conducting of privatization and poverty reduction.

Cancellation of benefits and exclusive rights

According to the Decree from May 1, 2022 privileges in the form of benefits and exclusive rights for a number of business entities, including foreign ones, will be gradually abolished. In addition, starting from July 1, 2022 customs duty benefits will be provided on the basis of the laws of the Republic of Uzbekistan only, meanwhile the getting of the Tariff and Non-Tariff Regulation Council’s conclusion will be considered mandatory.

Auto industry, aviation and railways will be reformed

The reforms will also affect some of the most discussed industries, such as the auto industry, aviation and railways. By August 1, 2022 up to 10% of the shares of UzAuto Motors JSC will be secured for IPO on the local stock market and later a Strategy will be developed for the sale of the remaining share of UzAuto Motors JSC to strategic investors, including UzAuto Motors Powertrain JSC and Samarqand Avtomobil zavodi Ltd. By June 1, 2022 a Strategy for the transformation, development and privatization of Uzbekistan Temir Yullari JSC (railways) will be developed and by September 1, 2022 51% or more of the state share in the authorized capital of Uzbekistan Airways JSC will be put up for auction. In addition, by the end of 2022 the privatization of at least 49% of the shares of Uzbekneftegaz JSC and 51% or more of the shares of Thermal Power Plants JSC will commence that should also attract great attention of the investors and ensure companies’ accelerated modernization.

New opportunities for public-private partnership

The Decree also pays a lot of attention to public-private partnership (PPP). According to the Decree, a drastic increase of the number of PPP projects in the field of drinking water, sewerage, heat supply and landscaping, road construction and aviation infrastructure is expected. In addition, domestic and international freight and passenger transportation by rail will also be transferred to the private sector on the basis of PPP or franchise. But this is not all. At the same time, from September 1, 2022 the priority of constructing new small and medium-sized hydroelectric power plants will be given to the projects with the participation of the private sector, including on the basis of PPP. Accordingly, by implementing such broad opportunities for partnership, all parties, including the end consumer, will receive more benefits and privileges from acting together than if separately.

Non-residents, residents and real estate

As it has already been emphasized, this Decree contains plenty turning points in the reform of many fields and spheres that will directly contribute to economic growth and attraction of investments. The document says that from May 1, 2022 the personal income tax rate on the income of non-resident individuals received from the sources in Uzbekistan will be set at 12% (now it is 20%). In addition, from May 1, 2022 foreign citizens are granted the right, without requiring a residence permit, to purchase real estate in the Tashkent region and in the cities of Tashkent and Samarkand in the equivalent of at least $150 thousand during construction and $180 thousand in operation, while in other regions – at least $70 thousand and $85 thousand respectively. At the same time, it should be noted that the acquisition of these real estate objects is not a basis for foreign citizens to obtain a certificate of permanent registration.

However, when foreign citizens purchase real estate in the Tashkent region or in Tashkent city in the equivalent of at least $300 thousand, they do receive a residence permit in Uzbekistan (now – in the equivalent of at least $400 thousand).

It is also worth noting that the Decree foresees the sale of non-agricultural land through auctions with the possibility of installment payments for up to 3 years. In addition, buyers who have made a one-time initial payment of at least 35% on state assets and non-agricultural lands are granted the right to mortgage property as collateral in bank lending.

The changes also affected the Heads of executive bodies and members of supervisory boards. Starting from April 1, 2022 a person appointed or reassigned as the Head of the executive body cannot become the Head again more than 2 consecutive terms. Also, according to the Decree, from July 1, 2022 at enterprises with a state share, a single policy of stimulating members of the supervisory board and remuneration of labor for members of the executive body will be established, moreover any additional payments to members of the executive body, except for wages and annual bonuses, will be canceled. In addition, it is regulated that the annual expenses of state-owned enterprises for sponsorship must not exceed 3% of the net profit received in the previous year. Another change also affected the sphere of antitrust measures, which will not be applied to entrepreneurs with sales revenue over the past year not exceeded 10 thousand BCV (basic calculated value) or 2.7 billion sums.

In conclusion, it should be noted that the window of opportunities shown by both time and the situation in the world is open and waiting for specific actions. The successful implementation of the measures foreseen by the Decree will not only attract great number of investments in the economy, but will also allow private businesses to take the advantages of all the opportunities that delivered to them thanks to the ongoing reforms.

Nicaragua vs. Colombie : quelques réfléxions concernant la décision de la CIJ

Par Nicolas Boeglin, Professeur de Droit International Public, Faculté de Droit, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)

Dans sa dĂ©cision rendue publique le 21 avril dernier (voir texte intĂ©gral en anglais et en  français ), la Cour Internationale de Justice (CIJ) a ordonnĂ© Ă  la Colombie de cesser toute interfĂ©rence dans les zones correspondant au Nicaragua dans la mer des CaraĂŻbes depuis sa dĂ©cision de 2012, et de modifier les rĂ©gulations qu’elle avait pris, conformĂ©ment au contenu de son arrĂȘt du 19 novembre 2012 et au droit international coutumier.

Nous avions eu l’occasion d’analyser cette procĂ©dure contentieuse engagĂ©e par le Nicaragua contre la Colombie devant la justice internationale en novembre 2013, et de mentionner certains dĂ©tails passĂ©s sous silence par certains analystes et collĂšgues colombiens, notamment l’expĂ©rience de l’Ă©quipe juridique nicaraguayenne dans l’art du contentieux international par rapport Ă  celle de leurs homologues dĂ©fendant la Colombie (voir notre brĂšve note  en espagnol intitulĂ©e : ” Nicaragua / Colombia: a propĂłsito de la lectura de la sentencia de la CIJ  “).

Le jeu de cartes de cette note avec une premiĂšre carte illustrant les zones maritimes revendiquĂ©es par la Colombie avant 2012 et une seconde carte de la dĂ©cision de la CIJ de 2012 permet au lecteur non averti de mieux comprendre la portĂ©e de la dĂ©cision de 2012 pour le Nicaragua dans les CaraĂŻbes.

Il est Ă  noter que la plus haute autoritĂ© colombienne et lÂŽensemble de son cabinet ont dĂ©cidĂ© de se rendre sur l’Ăźle de San AndrĂ©s pour y entendre la lecture du jugement rendu Ă  La Haye le 21 avril dernier (voir note de presse dÂŽInfobae).

Le contenu de la décision en bref

Comme somme toute assez prĂ©visible, les arguments prĂ©sentĂ©s par la Colombie n’ont pas eu beaucoup d’effet, tandis que le Nicaragua a rĂ©ussi Ă  consolider et Ă  rĂ©affirmer ses droits sur ces zones maritimes, qui lui ont Ă©tĂ© accordĂ©s par la CIJ en 2012, grĂące Ă  cet arrĂȘt.  

Les attentes (fausses) créées ces derniers temps en Colombie, notamment Ă  l’Ă©gard des communautĂ©s insulaires des Raizales, devront maintenant ĂȘtre expliquĂ©es par ceux qui en sont responsables au sein de lÂŽopinion publique colombienne . Une situation trĂšs similaire avait dÂŽailleurs dĂ©jĂ  Ă©tĂ© observĂ©e en Colombie dans les semaines prĂ©cĂ©dant la lecture de l’arrĂȘt de la CIJ en novembre 2012.

Sur les sept paragraphes du dispositif final de l arrĂȘt, le tout dernier sur les lignes de base droites adoptĂ©es par le Nicaragua en 2013 et 2018 permet Ă  la Colombie d’Ă©viter un jugement qui la condamnerait sur lÂŽensemble du dispositif.

Le dernier point du dispositif final (paragraphe 261) est reproduit ci-dessous, dans lequel il est indiqué que la CIJ :

“1. Dit que la compĂ©tence qu’elle a, sur le fondement de l’article XXXI du pacte de BogotĂĄ, pour statuer sur le diffĂ©rend relatif Ă  des allĂ©gations de violations, par la RĂ©publique de Colombie, des droits de la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua dans les espaces maritimes que la Cour a reconnus Ă  cette derniĂšre dans son arrĂȘt de 2012, couvre les demandes fondĂ©es sur les Ă©vĂ©nements mentionnĂ©s par la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua survenus aprĂšs le 27 novembre 2013, date Ă  laquelle le pacte de BogotĂĄ a cessĂ© d’ĂȘtre en vigueur pour la RĂ©publique de Colombie ; 

2. Dit que, en entravant les activitĂ©s de pĂȘche et de recherche scientifique marine de navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou dĂ©tenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen et les opĂ©rations de navires de la marine nicaraguayenne dans la zone Ă©conomique exclusive de la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua et en voulant faire appliquer des mesures de conservation dans cette zone, la RĂ©publique de Colombie a violĂ© les droits souverains et la juridiction de la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua dans cette zone maritime; 

3. Dit que, en autorisant des activitĂ©s de pĂȘche dans la zone Ă©conomique exclusive de la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua, la RĂ©publique de Colombie a violĂ© les droits souverains et la juridiction de la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua dans cette zone maritime 

4. Dit que la RĂ©publique de Colombie doit immĂ©diatement cesser le comportement visĂ© aux points 2) et 3) ci-dessus 

5. Dit que la «zone contiguĂ« unique» Ă©tablie par la RĂ©publique de Colombie par le dĂ©cret prĂ©sidentiel 1946 du 9 septembre 2013, tel que modifiĂ© par le dĂ©cret 1119 du 17 juin 2014, n’est pas conforme au droit international coutumier, ainsi qu’exposĂ© aux paragraphes 170 Ă  187 ci-dessus ; 

6. Dit que la RĂ©publique de Colombie doit, par les moyens de son choix, mettre les dispositions du dĂ©cret prĂ©sidentiel 1946 du 9 septembre 2013, tel que modifiĂ© par le dĂ©cret 1119 du 17 juin 2014, en conformitĂ© avec le droit international coutumier, en tant qu’elles ont trait aux espaces maritimes que la Cour a reconnus Ă  la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua dans son arrĂȘt de 2012 ; 

7. Dit que les lignes de base droites de la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua Ă©tablies par le dĂ©cret no 33-2013 du 19 aoĂ»t 2013, tel que modifiĂ© par le dĂ©cret no 17-2018 du 10 octobre 2018, ne sont pas conformes au droit international coutumier“.

Une lecture complĂšte de lÂŽensemble de lÂŽarrĂȘt est recommandĂ©e afin de mieux apprĂ©cier le raisonnement suivi par les juges de la CIJ, mais aussi de mieux comprendre la facilitĂ© avec laquelle le Nicaragua a rĂ©ussi Ă  les convaincre de la faiblesse des arguments prĂ©sentĂ©s par la Colombie.

Photo de la rencontre entre les prĂ©sidents colombien et nicaraguayen suite Ă  l’arrĂȘt de la CIJ de novembre 2012, qui s’est tenue au Mexique, lors de l’investiture du prĂ©sident Peña Nieto en dĂ©cembre 2012, extraite de ce communiquĂ© de presse d’Infobae intitulĂ© “Ortega y Santos se reunieron por el fallo de la CIJ”, Ă©dition du 1/12/2012.

De quelques points de détail

A noter que le seul juge de la CIJ originaire d’AmĂ©rique Latine (Antonio Cançado Trindade, BrĂ©sil) n’a pas pris part Ă  cette dĂ©cision, pour des raisons qui ne sont pas expliquĂ©es dans l’arrĂȘt. Le premier jour des audiences tenues en septembre 2021 (voir le verbatim), la PrĂ©sidente de la CIJ a indiquĂ© que: “For reasons duly made known to me, Judge Cançado Trindade is unable to sit with us in these oral proceedings, either in person or by video link” (page 12). Le fait qu’un juge en exercice Ă  la CIJ ne juge pas soulĂšve toujours quelques questions, que nous avons Ă©galement eu l’occasion de relever a lÂŽoccasion de la rĂ©cente ordonnance de la CIJ Ă  la Russie exigeant qu’elle cesse immĂ©diatement son agression militaire contre l’Ukraine en mars 2022 (Note 1).

Il convient de noter, en ce qui concerne le point 7 prĂ©citĂ©, que la Colombie n’a pas vraiment expliquĂ© comment cela affectait ses droits dans la zone Ă©conomique exclusive (ZEE), un dĂ©tail que le juge Mohamed Bennouna (Maroc) considĂšre comme suffisant pour que la CIJ rejette la demande de la Colombie ; et qui maintenant, selon lui, crĂ©e un dangereux prĂ©cĂ©dent pour la CIJ Ă  l’avenir, du fait de lÂŽexistence dans le monde d’innombrables dĂ©crets unilatĂ©raux fixant des lignes de base droites pour dĂ©limiter la mer territoriale (Note 2) qui ne respectent pas toujours les dispositions de la Convention sur le Droit de la Mer de 1982 (voir le texte de sa dĂ©claration).  Soit dit en passant, la Colombie n’a pas encore ratifiĂ© cet instrument universel (voir l’Ă©tat officiel des signatures et des ratifications) : en AmĂ©rique Latine, outre la Colombie, seul le Salvador partage cette situation, ainsi que le Venezuela (qui ne l’a mĂȘme pas signĂ©).

En ce qui concerne les prĂ©tendus droits de pĂȘche artisanale de la communautĂ© des Raizales dĂ©fendus par la Colombie devant le juge, le paragraphe 231 du jugement est on ne peut plus clair :

“231. Pour ces motifs, la Cour conclut que la Colombie n’a pas Ă©tabli que les habitants de l’archipel de San AndrĂ©s, notamment les Raizals, jouissent de droits de pĂȘche artisanale dans les eaux situĂ©es Ă  prĂ©sent dans la zone Ă©conomique exclusive nicaraguayenne, ou que le Nicaragua a, par les dĂ©clarations unilatĂ©rales de son prĂ©sident, acceptĂ© ou reconnu l’existence de leurs droits de pĂȘche traditionnels, ou pris l’engagement juridique de respecter de tels droits. Au vu de cette conclusion, point n’est besoin pour elle d’examiner les arguments des Parties quant au point de savoir si et dans quelles circonstances les droits de pĂȘche traditionnels d’une communautĂ© donnĂ©e peuvent survivre Ă  la crĂ©ation de la zone Ă©conomique exclusive d’un autre Etat, non plus que les violations desdits droits que le Nicaragua, selon la Colombie, aurait commises du fait du comportement de ses forces navales“.

Les paragraphes 219 Ă  224 donnent un idĂ©e des diverses inconsistances provenant des autoritĂ©s colombiennes elles-mĂȘmes sapant le bien-fondĂ© des arguments avancĂ©s par leurs conseillers juridiques Ă  La Haye : des incohĂ©rences qui ont, bien entendu, Ă©tĂ© fort habilement exploitĂ©es par leurs homologues dĂ©fendant le Nicaragua.

Quelques perspectives aprĂšs cet arrĂȘt

La pratique enseigne qu’aprĂšs la lecture d’un arrĂȘt de la CIJ entre deux États, les chefs d’État des deux pays peuvent commencer Ă  explorer une sorte de rapprochement, arrĂȘt en main, afin de reconstruire progressivement leurs relations bilatĂ©rales, souvent fort dĂ©tĂ©riorĂ©es.  En AmĂ©rique latine, c’est ce qu’ont fait le Salvador et le Honduras en 1992 aprĂšs avoir entendu un jugement de la CIJ mettant fin Ă  leur long diffĂ©rend territorial (voir le texte de la dĂ©claration conjointe), l’Argentine et l’Uruguay aprĂšs une dĂ©cision de la CIJ rendue en 2010 (voir l’article de la BBC), le PĂ©rou et le Chili en janvier 2014 (voir l’article d’El Nuevo Siglo). MĂȘme les chefs dÂŽEtat du Chili et de la Bolivie se sont rĂ©unis – trĂšs briĂšvement – en septembre 2015 lorsque la CIJ s’est dĂ©clarĂ©e compĂ©tente en rejetant les exceptions prĂ©liminaires prĂ©sentĂ©es par le Chili (voir lÂŽarticle de La Tercera).

De maniĂšre gĂ©nĂ©rale, on peut considĂ©rer que la lecture d’un arrĂȘt de la CIJ sur le fond doit toujours ĂȘtre comprise comme le point dÂŽaboutissement d’un processus et le dĂ©but d’une nouvelle Ă©tape : en effet, pendant plusieurs annĂ©es, les conseillers politiques et juridiques Ă  La Haye des deux Etats ont construit une stratĂ©gie de confrontation, en Ă©laborant des griefs et des revendications devant le juge international, qu’ils ont Ă©voquĂ©es devant leurs opinions publiques respectives pour les convaincre de la dĂ©fense irrĂ©prochable des intĂ©rĂȘts nationaux  quÂŽils ont faite. Mais une fois le jugement rendu Ă  La Haye, toutes ces discussions juridiques font partie du passĂ© et en quelque sorte, sÂŽeffacent. Dans sa dĂ©cision, le juge international a donnĂ© gain de cause sur certains points de droit à un État et d’autres à l’autre Etat, rejetant certains des griefs de l’un mais aussi de l’autre. C’est donc le texte de sa dĂ©cision qui doit servir de base pour reconstruire leurs relations malmenĂ©es par des annĂ©es de procĂ©dure à La Haye.

CÂŽest dans cette perspective, qui explique lÂŽĂ©quilibre subtile que le juge de La Haye cherche toujours Ă  imprimer Ă  ses dĂ©cisions, que la reprise du dialogue au plus haut niveau constitue un espace politique naturel dĂ©coulant de la lecture d’un arrĂȘt de la CIJ entre deux Etats (exception faite – et assez remarquĂ©e – du Costa Rica et du Nicaragua). Ceci afin de tenter de normaliser progressivement leurs relations dĂ©tĂ©riorĂ©es aprĂšs plusieurs annĂ©es de joutes juridiques Ă  La Haye : comme tout espace politique, il est soumis aux alĂ©as de la vie politique ; et surtout, Ă  la capacitĂ© de saisir lÂŽoccasion quÂŽoffre le juge international Ă  deux Etats.

A cet Ă©gard, il convient de rappeler que peu aprĂšs la lecture de l’arrĂȘt du 19 novembre 2012, les chefs dÂŽEtat de la Colombie et du Nicaragua ont eu l’occasion de se rencontrer Ă  l’occasion de l’investiture du nouveau prĂ©sident du Mexique, Enrique Peña Nieto. 

La Colombie a ensuite choisi de hausser le ton et ses autoritĂ©s ont offert au monde un spectacle rarement vu : celui d’un État profondĂ©ment mĂ©content par le contenu d ÂŽune dĂ©cision de la CIJ et adoptant une attitude sans prĂ©cĂ©dent. Quelques semaines aprĂšs le jugement de novembre 2012, la Colombie a dĂ©cidĂ© de dĂ©noncer le Pacte de Bogota adoptĂ© en 1948 (voir communiquĂ© officiel), devenant ainsi le premier État au monde Ă  dĂ©noncer un instrument international emblĂ©matique portant le nom de … sa propre capitale.

Dans le cadre de cette attitude assez particuliĂšre, le PrĂ©sidente de la Colombie a dĂ©clarĂ© l’arrĂȘt de la CIJ de 2012 ” inapplicable ” en septembre 2013 (Note 3), tendant de maniĂšre prĂ©visible les relations avec le Nicaragua et conduisant les autoritĂ©s de ce dernier Ă  introduire deux nouvelles requĂȘtes contre la Colombie devant la CIJ. 

Sur ce dernier point, il convient de noter que lÂŽautre requĂȘte introduite par le Nicaragua en 2013 (voir les dĂ©tails de la procĂ©dure dans ce lien officiel de la CIJ), Ă©galement liĂ©e Ă  la mer des CaraĂŻbes, est toujours en attente de sa rĂ©solution. Des dates doivent encore ĂȘtre fixĂ©es pour les audiences orales entre les deux États Ă  La Haye, qui constituent la derniĂšre Ă©tape de la phase contradictoire de la procĂ©dure contentieuse : aprĂšs quoi, des dĂ©libĂ©rations auront lieu jusquÂŽ Ă  la lecture de lÂŽarrĂȘt. Il convient de noter que le dĂ©libĂ©rĂ© de la CIJ est gĂ©nĂ©ralement de 6 mois mais peut prendre jusqu’Ă  13 mois (c’est ce qui s’est passĂ© dans le cas de la dĂ©limitation maritime entre le PĂ©rou et le Chili en 2014). Dans la toute premiĂšre affaire opposant le Costa Rica au Nicaragua (voir dĂ©tails procĂ©duraux  et arrĂȘt du 13 juillet 2009), la CIJ a surpris de nombreux observateurs avec un dĂ©libĂ©rĂ© de seulement 4 mois.

L’existence de cette seconde affaire pendante entre le Nicaragua et la Colombie ne devrait pas servir de prĂ©texte pour ne pas initier une phase de rapprochement au plan bilatĂ©ral. Les deux États peuvent dĂ©sormais s’asseoir pour nĂ©gocier sur les diffĂ©rents aspects de l’arrĂȘt lu le 21 avril 2022. Il convient de rappeler que ce diffĂ©rend maritime entre la Colombie et le Nicaragua a dĂ©butĂ© en 1980.

En guise de conclusion

À notre avis, la lecture d’un arrĂȘt de la CIJ devrait toujours ĂȘtre cĂ©lĂ©brĂ©e, car elle consolide l’idĂ©e que la force du droit prĂ©vaut sur le droit de la force dans les relations entre deux États. Cette affirmation sÂŽavĂšre particuliĂšrement pertinente en 2022 (et en particulier depuis le 24 fĂ©vrier), annĂ©e dans laquelle le monde assiste Ă  une tentative de la Russie de faire prĂ©valoir en Ukraine le droit de la force sur la force du droit, la conduisant Ă  une vĂ©ritable impasse.

On se doit de saluer la persĂ©vĂ©rance et la confiance du Nicaragua depuis 2001 dans la justice internationale face aux actions (plutĂŽt inhabituelles) observĂ©es, notamment depuis novembre 2012, des autoritĂ©s colombiennes : ces derniĂšres devraient ĂȘtre en mesure de revoir leur stratĂ©gie, Ă©valuer les rĂ©sultats obtenus et adopter des mesures qui soient plus conformes avec ce qui a Ă©tĂ© clairement Ă©tabli depuis 2012 par le juge de La Haye et rĂ©itĂ©rĂ© une nouvelle fois en 2022.

EspĂ©rons que les plus hautes autoritĂ©s des deux États chercheront un moyen de rĂ©orienter leurs relations vers des eaux moins turbulentes : en effet, le Nicaragua et la Colombie sont engagĂ©s depuis 21 ans dans des batailles juridiques complexes mais aussi fort coĂ»teuses (Note 4) Ă  La Haye relative Ă  un diffĂ©rend que, d’ordinaire, deux États voisins en mer ayant la volontĂ© de le rĂ©soudre, peuvent parfaitement rĂ©gler par la voie de la nĂ©gociation. 

Au passage, le Costa Rica (Note 5), mais aussi la JamaĂŻque et le Panama, qui avaient des traitĂ©s bilatĂ©raux de dĂ©limitation maritime avec la Colombie dans la Mer des CaraĂŻbes (Note 6) devraient commencer Ă  penser Ă  adapter leurs traitĂ©s de dĂ©limitation Ă  une nouvelle rĂ©alitĂ© cartographique : en effet, depuis le mois de novembre 2012, (et malgrĂ© l’enthousiasme prononcĂ© de la PrĂ©sidente du Costa Rica en 2013 pour sÂŽassocier aux rĂ©clamations de la Colombie – voir article d’El Espectador), l’un de leurs voisins maritimes dans la mer des CaraĂŻbes s’appelle le Nicaragua.

________________________

– – Notes  – –

Note 1:  Cf. BOEGLIN N., “Ucrania-Rusia: Corte Internacional de Justicia (CIJ) ordena medidas provisionales a Rusia“, DIPĂșblico, Ă©dition du 16/03/2022, disponible ici

Note 2 : Voir, par exemple, le cas du DĂ©cret ExĂ©cutif 18851-RE adoptĂ© par le Costa Rica en 1988 sur les lignes de base droites dans le Pacifique, qui a fait l’objet d’une note de protestation officielle des États-Unis en 1989  (les deux textes sont disponibles dans ce numĂ©ro de Limits in the Seas, une publication fort utile du DĂ©partement d’État nord amĂ©ricain).

Nota 3: Cf. BOEGLIN N., “La dĂ©cision de la Colombie de dĂ©clarer “non-applicable” lÂŽarrĂȘt de la CIJ: breves rĂ©flexions“, UniversitĂ© Laval (Canada), document disponible ici, ainsi que sur le site juridique spĂ©cialisĂ©  en droit international en France Sentinelle (voir hyperlien).

Note 4 : Le coĂ»t exact d’une demande de La Haye, que ce soit pour l ÂŽEtat demandeur ou pour l’État dĂ©fendeur, est gĂ©nĂ©ralement une zone grise sur laquelle les États restent quelque peu imprĂ©cis.  Pour ce qui est de lÂŽAmĂ©rique Latine, une presse un peu plus aguerrie et curieuse que la presse nicaraguayenne (ou costaricienne, ou hondurienne), comme la presse colombienne, a rĂ©ussi Ă  obtenir des chiffres sur les seuls honoraires perçus par les conseillers internationaux et nationaux pour dĂ©finir la meilleure stratĂ©gie aprĂšs l’arrĂȘt Nicaragua-Colombie de 2012 (voir article de Semana) ; concernant les actions antĂ©rieures Ă  2012, le mĂȘme mĂ©dia colombien a accĂ©dĂ© Ă  la liste des honoraires perçus par la vingtaine de juristes engagĂ©s par la Colombie (voir article). En AmĂ©rique latine, certaines informations ont circulĂ© sporadiquement dans quelques mĂ©dias : il est assez surprenant que ni les salles de rĂ©daction, ni les organes chargĂ©s des finances publiques, ni les commentateurs, ni les partis d’opposition n’aient manifestĂ© de curiositĂ© sur ce sujet prĂ©cis. Ainsi, en Argentine, il a Ă©tĂ© possible d’avoir accĂšs au ” taux horaire ” des conseillers internationaux engagĂ©s pour traiter la demande uruguayenne (voir note de presse 2010). Dans le cas du Chili, en 2015, le Pouvoir ExĂ©cutif a dĂ» reconnaĂźtre (contre sa volontĂ©) avoir dĂ©pensĂ© 20,3 millions de dollars pour faire face Ă  la seule requĂȘte introduite par le PĂ©rou devant la CIJ (voir note de presse). Une dĂ©cision de la Cour suprĂȘme du Chili en janvier 2014 (voir texte) a annulĂ© la dĂ©cision judiciaire prĂ©cĂ©dente ordonnant la divulgation de ces donnĂ©es, mettant ainsi en Ă©vidence la rĂ©sistance de l’appareil judiciaire chilien Ă  rendre certaines choses vraiment transparentes. Dans le cas de la Colombie, afin d’obtenir le retrait de la requĂȘte introduite par l’Équateur devant la CIJ relative aux Ă©pandages chimiques aĂ©riens en 2008, elle a choisi de dĂ©poser auprĂšs de l’Équateur en 2013 la somme de 15 millions de dollars (qui comprend notamment les frais de l’Équateur dans la procĂ©dure devant la CIJ – voir le point 9 de l’accord entre la Colombie et l’Équateur du 9/09/2013). Le montant extrĂȘmement prĂ©cis indiquĂ© par le contrĂŽleur gĂ©nĂ©ral de la RĂ©publique du Nicaragua de 6 169 029 dollars pour faire face Ă  l’unique requĂȘte introduite alors par le Costa Rica en mai 2011 (voir l’article d’El Nuevo Diario) est, Ă  notre avis, un indicateur Ă  prendre en considĂ©ration qui devrait ĂȘtre affinĂ© et complĂ©tĂ©. Nous serions reconnaissants Ă  nos chers lecteurs de nous envoyer le rapport dĂ©taillĂ© concernant ce montant sur cette affaire prĂ©cise qui s’est conclue en 2015, afin d’examiner les diffĂ©rends Ă©lĂ©ments contenus pour parvenir Ă  ce chiffre (courriel : cursodicr(a)gmail.com) ; ou plus gĂ©nĂ©ralement, tout autre rapport officiel dĂ©taillĂ© qu’ils pourraient avoir en leur possession concernant un autre État ayant plaidĂ© Ă  La Haye. En ce qui concerne le Costa Rica, le montant dĂ©pensĂ© par l’État costaricien pour couvrir les frais de dĂ©fense de ce que lÂŽon peut appeler “instances Ă  rĂ©pĂ©titions” contre le Nicaragua en 2005, 2010, 2014 et 2017, ainsi que pour faire face Ă  la requĂȘte introduite par le Nicaragua contre le Costa Rica en 2011 en raison de la construction de la fameuse ” trocha fronteriza ” par le Costa Rica, reste inconnu. L’incapacitĂ© dĂ©montrĂ©e par le Costa Rica pour nĂ©gocier le montant des dommages environnementaux causĂ©s par le Nicaragua sur l’Ăźle de Portillos que la CIJ avait retenu dans son arrĂȘt de dĂ©cembre 2015 (voir texte), invitant expressĂ©ment les deux États Ă  s’entendre sur le montant (paragraphe 142), a nĂ©cessitĂ© une deuxiĂšme Ă©tape procĂ©durale : celle-ci ne sÂŽest achevĂ©e quÂŽen fĂ©vrier 2018 par un nouvel arrĂȘt de la CIJ (voir texte), fixant un montant 15 fois infĂ©rieur Ă  celui demandĂ© par le Costa Rica (378.000 US$ contre les 6,7 millions de US$ rĂ©clamĂ©s par le Costa Rica). Nous renvoyons nos chers lecteurs Ă  cette article en espagnol que nous avons rĂ©digĂ© sur cet arrĂȘt de 2018 de la CIJ, intitulĂ© ” Costa Rica- Nicaragua: apuntes sobre la compensaciĂłn por daño ambiental en Isla Portillos fijada por la CIJ” publiĂ© sur le site de HablandoClaro (Costa Rica) et  Ă  une analyse prĂ©cĂ©dente Ă©galement en espagnol publiĂ©e sur le site de lÂŽOPALC de SciencesPo/Paris intitulĂ©e “Monto por daño causado en Isla Portillos oficializado por Costa Rica “.

Note 5 : Dans le cas du Costa Rica, il a Ă©tĂ© jugĂ© plus opportun de profiter de l Ă©lan produit par les “instances Ă  rĂ©pĂ©tition” contre le Nicaragua concernant le fleuve San Juan caractĂ©risant la pĂ©riode 2005-2017 pour demander Ă  la CIJ en 2014 de dĂ©terminer la frontiĂšre maritime entre les deux (Costa Rica et Nicaragua) et ce dans les deux ocĂ©ans, affaire qui a Ă©tĂ© rĂ©glĂ© par le juge international en fĂ©vrier 2018 (voir lÂŽarrĂȘt de la CIJ).

Note 6 :  La carte indiquĂ©e dans cet article permet de mettre en lumiĂšre quelques aspects concernant la dĂ©limitation maritime de la Mer des CaraĂŻbes en AmĂ©rique Centrale.  Dans le cas du Panama, il s’agit d’un traitĂ© signĂ© avec la Colombie en 1976 (voir texte et carte disponibles dans ce numĂ©ro de Limits in the Seas). Dans le cas du Costa Rica, il s’agit d’un traitĂ© similaire de 1977 qui n’a jamais Ă©tĂ© ratifiĂ© par le Costa Rica (voir le texte et la carte disponibles dans ce numĂ©ro de Limits in the Seas) : les deux traitĂ©s nĂ©gociĂ©s par la Colombie ont Ă©tĂ© signĂ©s avant que la notion de zone Ă©conomique exclusive (ZEE) ne soit consacrĂ©e en tant que telle dans la Convention sur le Droit de la Mer de 1982. Dans le cas de la JamaĂŻque, le traitĂ© signĂ© avec la Colombie date de 1993 (voir texte) et les cartes (voir cartes et texte en annexe 2 – pp.12-15 de ce numĂ©ro de Limits in the Seas).